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China - Combined fifth and sixth periodic report of States Parties [2004] UNCEDAWSPR 20; CEDAW/C/CHN/5-6 (10 June 2004)

  • Enrollment and completion rates of school-age children in primary schools

  • Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination

    against Women

    Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

    Combined fifth and sixth periodic report of States Parties

    * The present document is being issued without formal editing. The combined fifth and sixth periodic report of China was received by the Secretariat on 4 February 2004.

    For the initial report submitted by the Government of China, see CEDAW/C/5/Add.14, which was considered by the Committee at its third session. For the second periodic report submitted by the Government of China, see CEDAW/C/13/Add.26, which was considered by the Committee at its eleventh session. For the combined third and fourth periodic report submitted by the Government of China, see CEDAW/C/CHN/3-4 and CEDAW/C/CHN/3-4/Add.1 and Add.2, which was considered by the Committee at its twentieth session.

    China*

    In accordance with article 18, paragraph 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (hereinafter referred to as the Convention), the People’s Republic of China submits hereby to the Secretary-General of the United Nations the combined fifth and sixth periodic report on the implementation of the Convention.

    This report comprises three parts: the main part (this document) presents the updates on the Chinese Government’s implementation of the Convention during the four and one-half year period from July 1998 to the end of December 2002; addendum 1 (document CEDAW/C/CHN/5-6/Add.1) is an account presented by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China on the implementation of the Convention in the Region; and addendum 2 (document CEDAW/C/CHN/5-6/Add.2) is an account presented by China’s Macao Special Administrative Region on the implementation of the Convention in that Region. The report was prepared in compliance with the Guidelines on the Form and Content of Reports to be Submitted by States Parties to the International Human Rights Treaties (document HRI/GEN/2/Rev.1/Add.2), adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.

    Part I

    Introduction

    The present report, submitted in accordance with article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (hereinafter referred to as the Convention), is China’s combined fifth and sixth periodic report on the implementation of the Convention to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

    The report was drafted by the National Working Committee on Children and Women under the State Council (hereinafter referred to as NWCCW), which is the organ of China’s national Government responsible for the affairs of children and women. The following government institutions and agencies participated in the preparation of the report: the National People’s Congress, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission, the Ministry of Public Security, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Personnel, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Commerce (formerly the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation), the Ministry of Health, the National Population and Family Planning Commission (formerly the State Family Planning Commission), the National Bureau of Statistics, the Office of the Leadership Group for Poverty-Reduction and Development under the State Council, and the General Administration of Sport. In preparing the report, the NWCCW extensively sought input from civil society. The All-China Women’s Federation, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the China Women’s Institute, the China Women Entrepreneurs Association, the China Women Judges Association, the Women’s Studies Institute of China, and other national non-governmental organizations and research institutions also provided relevant information and statistics. The NWCCW held discussions with these institutions and organizations and incorporated their suggestions, and the report has received their concurrence and endorsement.

    The report provides updates on China’s implementation of the Convention during the four and one-half year period from July 1998 to the end of 2002. It is divided into two parts: Part I is an overview of the major steps taken by the Chinese Government and the society as a whole to eliminate discrimination against women, and the latest developments in this field, including the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action and the follow-up to the outcome documents of the 2000 General Assembly Special Session on Women; Part II provides detailed information on the implementation of individual articles of the Convention. China’s combined third and fourth periodic report (document CEDAW/C/CHN/3-4) remains valid. The present report is prepared in compliance with the Guidelines on the Form and Content of Reports to be Submitted by States Parties to the International Human Rights Treaties (document HRI/GEN/2/Rev.1/Add.2), adopted by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.

    The Chinese Government wishes to reiterate its continued reservation to article 29, paragraph 1 of the Convention.

    Implementation of the Convention in China’s Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions is covered in two addenda to this report (document CEDAW/C/CHN/5-6/Adds.1 and 2).

    Overview

    The Chinese Government has always maintained that gender equality is an important measurement of the development of any society. For many years, the Government has committed itself to women’s development and advancement, making the promotion and realization of gender equality a basic State policy for the social development of the country.

    The Chinese Government is also of the view that women’s development is closely linked to the advancement of society as a whole. Gender equality and the advancement of women are closely related to the improvement of the political, economic and social environments which are vital to women’s survival. Vigorous economic development, the elimination of poverty and the promotion of comprehensive social advancement are all prerequisites for women to have the opportunity for broad participation and the achievement of equal rights.

    According to its fifth national population census, China’s total population in 2000 was 1,295.33 million people of whom 1,265.83 million were on the mainland. Compared with the fourth census (1990), the population had increased by 132.15 million, or 11.66 per cent, with an average annual growth rate of 1.07 per cent. Of the mainland population, 653.55 million or 51.63 per cent were males, while 612.28 million or 48.37 per cent were females; the sex ratio (female=100) was 106.74; 1,159.40 million or 91.59 per cent were of Han nationality, and 106.43 million or 8.41 per cent were members of national minorities (55 minorities). Compared with the fourth census, the Han population had increased by 11.22 per cent, while the population of national minorities had increased by 16.70 per cent. 22.89 per cent of the total population were in the 0-14 age group, a decrease of 4.80 per cent; 6.96 per cent were in the age group of 65 and over, an increase of 1.39 per cent; 85.07 million or 6.72 per cent were illiterate (i.e. people over 15 years of age who cannot read or can read very little), a decrease of 9.16 per cent; 455.94 million or 36.09 per cent were urban residents, while 807.39 million or 63.91 per cent were rural residents, with the ratio of the former increasing by 9.86 per cent.

    Since July 1998, in the process of implementing the Outline of the Ninth Five-Year Plan of the People’s Republic of China for Social and Economic Development and the Long-term Targets for the Year 2010, the Chinese Government, taking coordinated and sustainable economic and social development as its national strategy and guided by the principle of simultaneous material and spiritual advancement, has developed and implemented a series of laws, regulations and policy measures in order to actively facilitate the sustained, rapid and healthy development of the national economy, more quickly meet the basic needs of the poor, improve the environment, establish a basic social security system, further health reform and development, realize universal compulsory education and eliminate illiteracy, and improve the living standards of the entire population, while at the same time promoting the advancement of women and children and endeavouring to convert achievements in economic development into social progress in a timely manner. When developing the nation’s macro policies, the Chinese Government firmly adheres to the principle of equal participation, common development and mutual benefits for men and women; emphasizes that all citizens, regardless of gender, have the same right to participate in national affairs and the life of society, and encourages men and women to join hands in achieving social progress and development. China’s Tenth Five-Year Plan (2001-2005) explicitly undertakes to implement the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010) and the Programme for the Development of Chinese Children (2001-2010) to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of women and children.

    China was among the first States parties to accede to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. In order to combat and eliminate discrimination against women, and taking into account China’s specific conditions and characteristics, the Chinese Government continues to develop and refine laws and regulations relating to the protection of women’s rights, in compliance with the principles of the Convention and other related international laws and regulations. The Government also formulates a women’s development strategy which incorporates the national development plan, and mobilizes all sectors of society to take a series of measures and actions to effectively uphold and safeguard women’s interests.

    Following the consideration of the combined third and fourth periodic reports of China on the implementation of the Convention by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women at its twentieth session in January 1999, the Chinese Government has attached great importance to the Committee’s consideration and concluding comments, and has taken the following major steps in accordance with the principles of the Convention and on the basis of the Committee’s recommendations:

    • The National Working Committee on Children and Women (NWCCW) under the State Council, China’s governmental organ responsible for the advancement of women, convened a special session between March and June 1999, to carefully analyse the considerations, concerns and recommendations of the Committee. By taking into account the challenges and obstacles encountered in the implementation of the Convention, it sought to explore ways of integrating relevant strategies and measures into new legislation and development programmes for women and children. The special session brought together Government departments, public groups and research institutions as well as experts and scholars.

    • On the basis of the relevant provisions of the Convention and the concerns of the Committee, the NWCCW has assigned specific tasks to its members (including 24 government departments and five national non-governmental organizations), requesting them to formulate concrete policies, objectives and measures in their respective fields, make an effort to address priority issues and challenges, and coordinate Government resources to provide financial support for efforts to address those issues.

    • In upholding the basic strategy of “Ruling the country in accordance with the law and building a socialist country under the rule of law”, the Chinese Government has made ongoing efforts to adopt and refine laws and regulations against the background of emerging issues concerning women’s rights and interests. Since July 1998, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress has successively enacted or amended, inter alia, the Adoption Law of the People’s Republic of China, the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Population and Family Planning and the Trade Union Law of the People’s Republic of China, thereby strengthening the protection of women’s rights in terms of subsistence, development, health, education, employment, marriage and family, and reproductive health, in accordance with the principles of gender equality and “children first”. With regard to emerging issues concerning women’s equal rights in rural land contracting, the State Council has adopted regulations providing for the equality of rights and interests for women and men in this area. In August 2002, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress promulgated the Rural Land Contracting Law of the People’s Republic of China, which contains specific provisions for the protection of women’s rights and interests in contracting for and utilizing land.

    • In an effort to implement the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of the special session of the General Assembly on women, the Chinese Government, on the basis of monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the first Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (1995-2000), officially launched the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010) in May 2001. The Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010) includes gender equality in its overall objectives, making it a basic State policy for the enhancement of national social progress. Six areas are identified for priority development: women and the economy, women’s participation in decision-making and management, women and education, women and health, women and law, and women and the environment. At the same time, the Chinese Government formulated the Programme for the Development of Chinese Children (2001-2010), which calls for integrating the spirit of gender equality into the content of education activities, effectively protecting girls’ right to education and eliminating all policies and measures that prevent girls from going to school. Relevant departments of the Government and all local Governments at the provincial level have accordingly formulated their own implementation plans and development initiatives on the basis of overall objectives, major goals, and strategies and measures of the Programme, while taking into account departmental and local realities, so as to enhance the relevance and operability of those plans and initiatives.

    • In order to ensure the implementation of laws and regulations that promote gender equality, the National People’s Congress and its relevant functional committees have strengthened their monitoring and research efforts regarding the implementation of laws protecting the rights and interests of women. In 2002, on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the promulgation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women (hereinafter referred to as the Law on the Protection of Women), relevant functional committees of the National People’s Congress reviewed the implementation of the Law. It was concluded that legal awareness regarding the protection of women’s rights has improved continuously throughout society, and that there has been visible progress regarding the protection of women’s rights and interests.

    • The imbalances of economic development among different parts of China directly constrain women’s development and equal access to resources. For this reason, the Chinese Government launched, at the beginning of the present century, a development strategy for the underdeveloped western regions of the country, mobilizing the resources of the entire society to help those regions in an effort to eliminate poverty and improve living conditions, especially the living environment of women and children, and making poverty alleviation for women an important component of the national anti-poverty programme.

    • As China’s economic, political and cultural development and reform directly affect marriage and the family, in 1999 the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress in response to current needs as well as public demand, included the amendment of the Marriage Law in its legislative agenda. The amended Marriage Law was promulgated in April 2001. In the process of amending the Law, the National People’s Congress published the draft and solicited public comment, receiving over 4,000 letters from ordinary citizens, as well as thousands of opinions conveyed via the mass media. The number of ordinary citizens directly participating in this legislative process and the broad range of their views were unprecedented; it was indeed a transparent and participatory process. The amended Marriage Law makes additional and supplementary provisions regarding the marriage system, the property of couples, combating domestic violence, relations among family members, and divorce, thus enhancing the relevance and operability of the Law.

    • A successful campaign to combat and eliminate discrimination against women relies on the enhancement of people’s awareness regarding laws and regulations as well as gender issues. In accordance with national realities and after successfully completing three successive five-year national legal-awareness campaigns (1986-1990, 1991-1995, and 1996-2000), has followed up with a fourth such nationwide campaign (2001-2005). In the process, by taking account of some of the more salient issues related to economic and social reform, priority is given to disseminating awareness of such legislation as the Law on the Protection of Women, the Labour Law, the newly amended Marriage Law and the Law on Population and Family Planning Act. The role of the mass media is emphasized; and efforts to raise awareness about basic State policies on gender equality and gender issues are stepped up, with a view to creating a better social environment for women’s development. While promoting laws and regulations on women’s rights, the contents of the Convention, the work of the Committee, and the obligations of the signatories are also publicized.

    • In recent years, the Chinese Government has enhanced the creation of mechanisms for protecting women’s rights and interests, giving priority to the training of law-enforcement personnel. By the end of 2000, over 3,000 special courts and 544 tribunals had been established for the protection of women and children, and a total of over 7,000 special jurors had been invited to participate. Legal-assistance hotlines and complaint-collection centres were established in both urban and rural areas across the country. Better training was provided to relevant personnel in the public-security, public-prosecution, court, judicial, civil-administration, public-health and information sectors as well as to staff members of women’s federations. Efforts have been made to improve understanding of the importance of protecting women’s rights and interests among law-enforcement personnel, as well as to raise their awareness about gender issues, share experiences and learn modern techniques. In 2001, a coordinating and steering group for the protection of women’s and children’s rights and interests was established to enable all departments to work better in a joint and coordinated manner, thus effectively enhancing the Government’s efforts to protect women’s rights and interests.

    • The Chinese Government has also strengthened its efforts to create a system of social statistical indicators as well as gender-disaggregated statistics, taking into account all the development and change that is occurring throughout society. In order to accurately reflect the situation of and changes in Chinese women’s social status since the 1990s, analyse and examine gender structure in the distribution of social resources, and better monitor the situation of women’s development, the NWCCW has established a steering group for monitoring and assessing the implementation of the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women; and the National Bureau of Statistics has set up a database of gender-disaggregated statistics. On 1 December 2000, after two years of preparation, the National Bureau of Statistics and the All-China Women’s Federation launched the second sample survey on Chinese women’s social status; eight indicators relating to economic status, political status, education, marriage and family life, health, lifestyle, legal status and gender awareness were chosen, and the results were published in September 2001. The survey made it clear that, compared with the first survey done ten years previously, the situation of Chinese women’s development had markedly improved, and that there had been progress in women’s political status, economic status, education, health and marriage and family life.

    • Since 1995, the Chinese Government has adopted a practice of allocating more than two-thirds of the international development aid it receives to such fields as public hygiene, education, water supply, poverty alleviation and the advancement of women. In implementing international cooperative projects in recent years, the Chinese Government has attached great importance to the protection of women’s rights and interests, while striving to make the Convention better known and understood. For example, since 2000, in implementing the provisions of the Convention and the Law on the Protection of Women, the Government has cooperated with the United Nations Development Fund for Women, the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Children’s Fund, and the Ford Foundation, as well as such countries as Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom in carrying out projects to protect women’s rights and interests, combat the abduction and trafficking of women and children, curb domestic violence and provide legal assistance.

    Given the constraints stemming from varying levels of economic and social development, the influence of traditional modes of thought, and especially the numerous new phenomena, characteristics and problems emerging as a result of the transition from a planned economy to a socialist market economy, the full realization of equal rights for Chinese women in the political, economic, cultural, social and familial spheres will continue to be a lengthy process. It therefore remains a long-term and arduous task for the Chinese Government and the society as a whole to further improve the social environment for women’s development, overcome obstacles and eliminate discrimination against women in all its forms. The Chinese Government and the entire Chinese people together will make unremitting efforts to that end.

    Part II

    Article 1

    For the purposes of the present Convention, the term “discrimination against women” shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.

    The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, China’s fundamental law, stipulates that “Women in the People’s Republic of China enjoy equal rights with men in all spheres of life, in political, economic, cultural, social, and family life”.

    At the Fourth World Conference on Women, former President of the People’s Republic of China Jiang Zemin pledged that “we attach great importance to the development and advancement of women, and have made gender equality a basic State policy in promoting social development. We are resolutely opposed to any forms of discrimination against women and have taken concrete steps to maintain and protect the equal status, rights and interests of women in our country’s political, economic and social life.”

    The Chinese Government has incorporated the principle of equality of men and women into its legislation; guided by its constitution, China has developed a comprehensive system of laws and regulations to guarantee women’s rights and interests and promote their development. The basis of that system is the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, but it also includes such other laws as the Civil Law, the Criminal Law, the Electoral Law, the Labour Law, the Marriage Law, the Compulsory Education Law, the Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care, the Inheritance Law, the Adoption Law, the Trade Union Law, the Population and Family Planning Law, the Rural Land Contracting Law, the Regulations on Labour Protection for Female Workers and Employees, the Regulations on the Eradication of Illiteracy, the Provisional Measures for Maternity Insurance for Staff and Workers in Enterprises, and the Regulations concerning the Administration of Public Security and Punishment.

    There is no definition of discrimination in China’s laws.

    Article 2

    States Parties condemn discrimination against women in all its forms, agree to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women and, to this end, undertake:

    (a) To embody the principle of the equality of men and women in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation if not yet incorporated therein and to ensure, through law and other appropriate means, the practical realization of this principle;

    (b) To adopt appropriate legislative and other measures, including sanctions where appropriate, prohibiting all discrimination against women;

    (c) To establish legal protection of the rights of women on an equal basis with men and to ensure through competent national tribunals and other public institutions the effective protection of women against any act of discrimination;

    (d) To refrain from engaging in any act or practice of discrimination against women and to ensure that public authorities and institutions shall act in conformity with this obligation;

    (e) To take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women by any person, organization or enterprise;

    (f) To take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women;

    (g) To repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination against women.

    Since 1998, the following laws relating to women were adopted or amended: the Adoption Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 1998), the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (1999), the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 2001), the Population and Family Planning Law of the People’s Republic of China (2001), the Trade Union Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 2001) and the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Rural Land Contracting (2002).

    Since 1998, the following measures have been taken to implement the Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of Women in order to eradicate discrimination against women and to protect their equal rights and interests:

    • Starting in 2000, the Ministry of Justice, in cooperation with other ministries, carried out “March 8 [Women’s Day] Rights Protection Week” campaign activities nationwide for three years in a row. Information on the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women was widely disseminated to various segments of society, so that women would know and understand its provisions in order to be more aware of the need to seek help from society when their rights are infringed upon, and would be better able to defend their rights.

    • The Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women was again included in the fourth Five-Year Plan National Legal Knowledge Dissemination. Various news media were used to spread extensive and in-depth knowledge of the Law as well as on other relevant laws and regulations, especially in rural areas and at the grass-roots level, fostering a culture throughout society whereby women are respected, and their rights and interests are consciously safeguarded.

    • A national coordination group on the rights and interests of women and children was set up in November 2001, comprising the following fourteen Government ministries and agencies: the Propaganda Department and the Commission on Politics and Law of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee, the Supreme People’s Court, the Supreme People’s Procuratorate, the Ministry of Public Security, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Health, the State Population and Family Planning Commission, the State Administration for Industry and Commerce, and the All-China Women’s Federation, as well as non-governmental organizations. The coordination group exchanges information, studies key and priority issues and investigates typical cases through meetings, investigations and research activities, and exercises overnight functions in order to further the implementation of the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women.

    • 2002 marked the tenth anniversary of the promulgation of the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women. From the end of 2000 to April 2002, the relevant special committees of the National People’s Congress carried out inspections, supervisory and research activities with regard to the enforcement of the laws on women in the following eleven provinces and municipalities: Shanghai, Shandong, Hunan, Guangdong, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Liaoning, Anhui, Guangxi and Hainan. The inspections were carried out by inspection teams or by the provinces themselves, focusing on women’s political rights, their rights and interests at work, personal rights, and land-contracting rights in rural areas. The inspection teams visited state-owned enterprises, private enterprises, local communities, legal counselling centres for women, domestic-services centres, schools, labour markets, community centres in townships and villages, local police stations and women’s prisons to check on implementation of the laws through on-site visits, interviews and meetings. Legal systems to safeguard women’s rights and interests are being improved. From 1992 to 2002, eleven laws relating to the protection of women’s rights were enacted by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress; implementation rules were subsequently drawn up by the provincial People’s Congresses in conformity with the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, and working committees on women and children were set up by most Governments at the prefectural and municipality levels and above, to coordinate and promote the enforcement of the laws on women. Such bodies were also established by the Government at the county level, with full-time staffs and annual resource allocations. Policies were also formulated by relevant bodies of the Government to overcome the main problems in protecting the rights and interests of women in such areas as employment, labour safety for female workers, access to education for girls, land contracting by rural women, domestic violence and political participation. The local People’s Congresses strengthened supervision of law-enforcement efforts by carrying out frequent inspections and recommending specific actions as necessary. The initial framework of a Government-administered system for protecting the rights and interests of women by society is thus emerging, under the supervision of the People’s Congresses and with the participation of various sectors. Society as a whole is more aware of the need to legally protect the legitimate rights and interests of women, and the protection of women’s rights and interests has manifestly improved as a result.

    Article 3

    States parties shall take in all fields, in particular in the political, social, economic and cultural fields, all appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure the full development and advancement of women, for the purpose of guaranteeing them the exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on a basis of equality with men.

    In its efforts to further the implementation of the Convention, the Beijing Platform for Action, and the outcome documents of the special General Assembly session on women, the Chinese Government promulgated the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women for 1995-2000 (the “Five-Year Programme”) and the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women for 2001-2010 (the “Ten-Year Programme”) respectively in 1995 and 2001, to ensure the full development and advancement of women in the political, social, economic and cultural spheres, and guarantee them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with men. Mid-term and end-term evaluations of the implementation of the Five-Year Programme conducted in 1998 and 2001 respectively showed that:

    • the participation of women in the decision-making on and administration of State and social affairs increased, with the overall rate of participation in Government and political affairs displaying an upward trend;

    • the rate of employment for women rose and remained stable, with more women joining unemployment and maternity-insurance schemes, but the protection of women’s rights and interests at work required further strengthening;

    • women’s levels of education rose, their illiteracy rate declined, and the gap between men and women in education was reduced;

    • the health care situation in the less economically advanced regions improved markedly, with women in a better state of health;

    • women’s status within their families improved, and their rights and interests were enhanced;

    • violence against women, criminal activities such as the abducting and trafficking of women, and illegal activities such as prostitution and whoring were curbed effectively;

    • activities were undertaken to help women in poor regions to lift themselves out of poverty, resulting in a reduction in the number of women in poverty;

    • there were more community-service facilities in townships, with the beneficial effect of lessening women’s dual burdens of home and work; and

    • mechanisms were established to study, collect data and disseminate information on the situation of women.

    Under the Five-Year Programme, Chinese women’s living and development conditions have shown great overall improvement, and the quality of their general situation has markedly improved. The Five-Year Programme was an important milestone in women’s development in China, and has in turn laid the groundwork for achieving the goals of the Ten-Year Programme.

    The 2001 Ten-Year Programme is a continuation and extension of the Five-Year Programme, and is guided by the following three principles in its formulation:

    (1) Coordination between the development of women and that of the economy and society. The goals, tasks and policy measures contained in the Ten-Year Programme should be in conformity with the relevant national laws and regulations, and with the main objectives and tasks contained in the Tenth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development, as well as with the development plans of the governmental departments concerned.

    (2) Unity of realism and foresight. The Programme should take into account the fact that China is at the initial stage of socialist construction, and should take the current state of Chinese women’s development as its point of departure. It should also be geared to the twenty-first century and world standards by incorporating internationally recognized goals, and making these goals practical and feasible, while still being forward-looking and challenging.

    (3) National comprehensiveness combined with focus on specific issues. The goals of the Programme should be set for the nation as a whole, and reflect Chinese women’s overall development level, but should also, to the extent possible, take regional differences into consideration and give particular attention to the development problems confronting women in minority-inhabited areas.

    In comparison with the Five-Year Programme, the Ten-Year Programme is characterized by the following four features:

    (1) The national policy of equality between men and women is unequivocally stated. The Ten-Year Programme integrates this policy as a general objective for the first time, and emphasizes the significance of its implementation in the Programme’s strategies and measures.

    (2) Areas of priority for women’s development are defined. In accordance with the Convention and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women, and in light of the current situation of Chinese women, the eleven major goals in the Five-Year Programme have been categorized and consolidated into the following six priority development areas: women and the economy, women in decision-making and management, women and education, women and health, women and law, and women and the environment, thus fully covering the economic, political, educational, health, legal and environmental domains. The Programme contains 34 key goals and 100 strategies and measures.

    (3) Women’s personal development is emphasized. New goals are set in accordance with the Tenth Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and in accordance with the general requirements of social and economic development. These goals are aimed at tackling the major and difficult issues critical to the development of women, and greater emphasis is put on ways to protect women’s legitimate rights and interests, raise their overall quality, and promote their personal development within the context of the socialist market economy.

    (4) Responsibilities are clearly defined. On the basis of experiences gained in the implementation of the Five-Year Programme, the Ten-Year Programme sets out the strategies and measures for the State, Government departments and society as a whole.

    The Programme provides that the NWCCW is responsible for organizing the implementation of the Programme. All relevant departments under the State Council and social organizations should formulate their respective implementation measures in accordance with the requirements of the Programme and responsibilities, and are responsible for carrying them out. Local Governments at all levels, taking their local conditions into full consideration, should formulate plans for women’s development in their localities, and incorporate them into their overall plans for local economic and social development. This further clarifies the responsibilities of various actors in the implementation of the Programme. At the same time, the Programme requires the establishment of a system of monitoring and evaluation, to be conducted at different levels, which also entails setting up systems to monitor women’s status at the national and provincial levels as well as in the autonomous regions and municipalities, along with the creation of institutions to handle such monitoring and evaluation.

    Article 4

    1. Adoption by States Parties of temporary special measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality between men and women shall not be considered discrimination as defined in the present Convention, but shall in no way entail as a consequence the maintenance of unequal or separate standards; these measures shall be discontinued when the objectives of equality of opportunity and treatment have been achieved.

    2. Adoption by States Parties of special measures, including those measures contained in the present Convention, aimed at protecting maternity shall not be considered discriminatory.

    The Chinese Government has taken special measures in many areas to ensure that women can truly enjoy various rights on an equal footing with men.

    Participation in the decision-making process:

    The Chinese Government has adopted preferential policies for women in order to promote their participation in decision-making; these include, inter alia:

    Regulations explicitly providing for the selection of women to serve as senior officials at various local levels. At the provincial, municipal and country levels, there shall be at least one female member at the supervisory level in both the Communist Party and Government leadership. At the Prefectural level and above, at least 50 per cent of the departments of the Communist Party and Government shall have women at the supervisory level.

    In selecting officials, priority shall be given to women among similarly qualified candidates.

    When there is a change of administration, if the submitted list of senior officials does not have the required number of women candidates, in principle it shall not be accepted for consideration.

    In an open recruitment of senior officials, a certain number of posts shall be earmarked for women.

    According to the Electoral Law of the National People’s Congress and Local People’s Congresses of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 1995), there shall be an appropriate number of women deputies to the National People’s Congress and local People’s Congresses at various levels, and the proportion thereof shall be gradually increased.

    As revised in November 1998, the Village Committee Organizational Law stipulates that there shall be an appropriate number of women among members of Village Committees. In implementing this policy, the Ministry of Civil Affairs issued its views on efforts to ensure appropriate representation of rural women on Village Committees in July, 1999, requiring that villagers be encouraged to nominate eligible rural women to such committees without discrimination or unfair treatment. Rural women are also encouraged to compete for such seats.

    Education:

    The Ministry of Education has established an education assistance system to provide girls from poor families with financial aid, tuition waivers or deferrals and other forms of assistance aimed at promoting their education.

    Participation in development:

    The Labour Law stipulates that the State shall provide special protection for women workers. Women workers shall not be assigned to work in underground mines, at jobs involving Grade IV physical-labour intensity levels as defined by the State, or in other proscribed labour activities. During their menstrual periods, women shall not be assigned to work at high altitudes, in low temperatures or in cold water, or at jobs involving Grade III physical-labour intensity levels. During pregnancy, women shall not be assigned to work at jobs involving Grade III physical-labour intensity levels or in other labour activities proscribed during pregnancy. Women in or beyond the seventh month of pregnancy shall not be assigned to work overtime or on night shifts. All women workers are entitled to maternity leave of no less than 90 days. All women workers breastfeeding children younger than one year of age shall not be assigned to work at jobs involving Grade III physical-labour intensity levels or in other labour activities proscribed for lactating women, or to work overtime or on night shifts.

    In order to enhance special workplace protection for women workers, as well as to enhance the supervision of and guidance for the implementation of such protection by enterprises, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security recently revised the Regulations on Workplace Protection for Women Workers.

    To address the difficulties faced by unemployed women in the job market, the Government uses such measures as social insurance subsidies and tax incentives to encourage employers to hire women; it also pays for public-welfare employment positions and offers such jobs in turn to women workers in extreme need.

    The State has established a maternity insurance scheme to protect the basic rights and interests of women workers of child-bearing age by improving their working environment.

    Women enjoy preferential treatment in receiving poverty-alleviation grants. The Chinese Government also issues small loans specially designed for women.

    Protection of mothers:

    On the basis of relevant health care and workplace protection measures, the State has adopted the Law on Population and Family Planning and the Regulations on Methods for Administration of Family Planning Technical Services, which, inter alia, provide that the husband and wife have equal responsibilities in family planning, that the State shall guarantee its citizens the right to adequate family planning services, and that women have the right to make informed choices regarding contraception methods.

    Article 5

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures:

    (a) To modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary and all other practices which are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women;

    (b) To ensure that family education includes a proper understanding of maternity as a social function and the recognition of the common responsibility of men and women in the upbringing and development of their children, it being understood that the interest of the children is the primordial consideration in all cases.

    Attaching great importance of the role of the media in promoting gender equality and overcoming discrimination and prejudice against women, the Chinese Government has adopted a number of relevant laws, regulations, policies and has taken some strong measures.

    Chapter 2 of the Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China provides that advertisements shall not contain “content of a sexually discriminatory nature” or of an “obscene, horrific, violent or indecent nature”. The Regulations on Film Review and the Regulations on Television Series Review explicitly prohibit movies and TV series from transmitting content that depicts indecent sexual relations, grossly violates moral standards or is obscene, strongly stimulating or morally degenerate. Any scene in a movie which improperly depicts sex or sex-related behaviour, shows frontal nudity of men or women, or substantively depicts indecency, rape or prostitution, shall be cut or edited. In its Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (1995-2000), the State Council proposed in unequivocal terms to “educate society as a whole on the significant role played by women in creating human civilization and advancing social development; advocate the equality of women and men in character, dignity, rights and status; exalt women who strive for self-respect, self-confidence, self-reliance and self-empowerment and prohibit derogatory or degrading depictions of women in the media.” The Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2000-2010) further emphasizes that the State shall “enhance the communication of the basic State policy of equality of men and women; gradually overcome prejudice and discrimination against women as well as derogatory views of women in the society; and prohibit pornography and content insulting to women in media, advertisements, literature and the arts”.

    The Government and media workers have made great efforts to change old social and cultural modes of gender-related behaviour, and to overcome hierarchical perceptions based on gender or prejudices and customs based on gender stereotypes, including:

    • Educating society as a whole regarding the significant role played by women in creating human civilization and advancing social development, so as to show the full scale of women’s wisdom and talent; and promoting gender equality, combating gender discrimination, and facilitating the enhancement of Chinese women’s sense of identity and collective capacity.

    • Establishing review agencies to curb derogatory and degrading depictions of women in media. A film review board was formed by the Ministry of Radio, Film and Television in 1996, and subsequently a television series review board and a television series review appeal board were formed by the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television in 1999. If a film or TV series is found to violate the rules or regulations, the submitter should propose a plan of modification based on suggestions from these boards, for the approval of the relevant board.

    • The major media organizations of China are actively promoting the mainstreaming of the principle of gender equality in media products. China Central Television (CCTV), the People’s Daily, China Radio International, as well as local TV stations in Beijing and Guangdong and others have produced special programmes and features for women; and local TV stations in Hunan, Heilongjiang and other provinces have women’s channels. As of 2000, China had 123 newspapers and magazines targeted at women. All these programmes, channels, radio stations and newspapers and magazines specially designed for women have produced many in-depth and influential reports and news stories promoting the basic State policy of gender equality and facilitating the advancement of women.

    CCTV’s Banbiantian (“Half the Sky”) is a TV programme for women which discusses social issues and looks at daily life from a gender perspective, and has set an example for using media to promote gender equality. Kofi Annan, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, mentioned it at the Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly on Women as being a very effective regular TV programme dedicated to topics related to women. The core staff of the Banbiantian production team have received training in gender sensitivity, and advisers on gender issues are regularly employed. The programme pays attention to current social topics, features news stories regarding men from the woman’s perspective, and demonstrates that elimination of gender discrimination requires efforts from both men and women. In a survey of 22 programmes conducted in the first quarter of 2000 by the CCTV Survey and Advisory Center, Banbiantian (“Half the Sky”) ranked first in recognizability, second for the quality of the host’s personality, and sixth in audience satisfaction.

    At a meeting for editors-in-chief of news organizations convened in Beijing in 2001 by the Department of Propaganda of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, the Department instructed the news media to observe relevant laws and regulations, and to earnestly carry out the spirit of the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women. Requirements regarding future promotion of gender equality in the media were also proposed at the meeting.

    • Non-governmental organizations have also played an important role in the promotion of gender equality in media. In Beijing, the Capital Women Journalists’ Association set up a media monitoring network in 1996 to monitor the image of women presented in various types of media, promote proper and comprehensive depictions of women, and overcome social discrimination and prejudice against women. The Association also formed a branch for women journalists from national minorities a few years ago, so as to assist these women journalists in realizing their potential in the media. Media workers are also trained on gender issues, so as to promote gender equality in news coverage. In September 2000, the All-China Women’s Federation cooperated with the United Nations Children’s Fund in convening a seminar on girls and the mass media, which called on media to give more coverage to all aspects of the development of girls, so as to play a positive role in this regard. The Women’s Studies Institute of China held a seminar on media and the advancement of women in Beijing in December 2001 to review the performance and experience of media in promoting gender equality and the advancement of women, analyse media practices that are detrimental to the advancement of women, and make recommendations for improvements.

    While paying attention to the role played by the mass media, China also attaches great importance to the role of parents in educating their children regarding gender equality. The Programme for the Development of Children in China (2001-2010) requires the incorporation of the concept of gender equality into education. China began to set up schools for parents in the 1980s to teach them how to instil the concept of gender equality in their children. The country currently has 300,000 such schools, which have incorporated such concepts as respect for mothers and gender equality into their curricula so as to transmit the concept of gender equality to children by means of educating their parents. Some non-governmental organizations have also actively participated in this process. In 1996, the All-China Women’s Federation further expanded the broad-based “Families of Five Virtues” movement in urban and rural areas, renaming it the “Model Families of Five Virtues” movement, to include new elements for the creation of an ethical, civilized culture, such as the promotion of mutual help and support between husband and wife and the sharing of household chores and child-rearing responsibilities, so as to create a modern family life which is healthy, scientific and civilized. So far more than 80 million families have been selected as “Model Families of Five Virtues”.

    China was a feudal society for a long time, so thoroughly changing the old ways men and women behave in social and cultural settings and overcoming misconceptions based on gender discrimination is a long and arduous challenge. At present, women’s participation at the decision-making level in the media is still low; elements of gender discrimination and stereotyping persist in media content; some movies, TV programmes, advertisements and print media still distort, derogate and even insult the image of women; and the public lacks sensitivity to or critical awareness of gender discrimination in the media.

    Article 6

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to suppress all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of prostitution of women.

    China’s Criminal Law, General Principles of the Civil Law, Marriage Law, Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, as well as Regulations on Administrative Penalties for Public Security, all have made provisions concerning the issue of violence against women. In particular, China amended its Criminal Procedure Law and Criminal Law in 1996 and 1997, focusing on safeguarding women’s legitimate rights and interests, and incorporating into the Criminal Law the key provisions of the Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress Regarding the Severe Punishment of Criminals Who Abduct and Traffic in or Kidnap Women or Children, and the Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on the Strict Prohibition against Prostitution and Whoring. The amendments include important supplementary provisions and revisions for combating the abduction of and trafficking in women and children as well as the forcing of women into prostitution, providing for heavier punishment, and adding provisions for the imposition of pecuniary penalties which stipulate that, in addition to imprisonment, those criminals guilty of abducting and trafficking in human beings and forcing others into prostitution for profit shall also be subject to fines or confiscation of property. The amendments also provide explicit penalties for crimes of dereliction of duty by law enforcement personnel.

    To combat such criminal activities as prostitution and abducting and trafficking in women, and to prevent and curb domestic violence, the Chinese Government has taken measures in the following areas in recent years:

    Refining administrative regulations and strengthening law enforcement efforts. In 1998, in order to step up the fight against prostitution, the Ministry of Public Security promulgated the Provisionary Regulations on the Responsibility of Public Security Bureaus to Maintain Law and Order at Recreational and Entertainment Facilities, which explicitly provides that public security bureaus are responsible for maintaining law and order at public recreational and entertainment facilities within their jurisdiction. In the same year, with the view to enhancing control and management of certain entertainment and service facilities, the Ministry of Public Security joined the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security and the State Administration for Industry and Commerce in issuing the Circular on the Control and Regulation of Massage Parlours and on the Suppression of Illegal Business Activities. In March 1999, the State Council promulgated the Regulations on the Administration of Recreational and Entertainment Facilities, outlawing all acts of prostitution at such facilities. In 2000, in response to crimes related to abducting and trafficking in women, the Ministry of Public Security circulated the Opinions on Issues Relating to Applicable Laws and Policies in the Suppression of Abducting and Trafficking in Women and Children. Moreover, the Ministry of Public Security has made great efforts to support the development of local regulations to suppress abduction and prostitution activities, making the work of protecting women’s legitimate rights and interests more responsive to local reality.

    Establishing agencies to direct the work of suppressing abduction activities, with the view to strengthening overall control and management. All provinces which are facing serious crimes involving the abduction of and trafficking in women and children have established leadership groups headed by local leaders and consisting of members from such Government departments as public security, prosecution, courts, civil affairs, public information and education as well as non-governmental organizations, in order to better direct joint actions to combat such crimes and to enhance integrated control and management.

    Conducting campaigns to aggressively combat criminal activities which encroach upon women’s legitimate rights and interests. In 1998, the Ministry of Public Security, the State Administration for Industry and Commerce, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security and the Ministry of Health jointly launched a special campaign to control and regulate massage parlours and suppress illegal business activities. In 1999, the Ministry of Public Security conducted an autumn campaign to suppress prostitution and gambling. A coordinated operation was carried out in 16 provinces and cities to rescue abducted women and children, and some 1,000 women and children were rescued. In 2000, law enforcement agencies launched a campaign to strengthen control and management of recreational and entertainment facilities and combat the vice of prostitution, during which 38,000 cases of prostitution, involving 73,000 individuals, were investigated and dealt with. From April to July of 2000, after careful preparation and making full use of such modern scientific and technical means as computer networks and DNA data-matching technology, law enforcement agencies throughout the country conducted a massive operation to punish traffickers and rescue abducted women and children. The operation achieved great success, rescuing more than 10,000 abducted women.

    • Conducting legal awareness campaigns to enhance public understanding of the legal system. Since 1986, China has implemented three Five-Year Legal Awareness Campaigns, and is currently implementing a fourth. These awareness campaigns are focused on the laws and regulations closely related to the rights and interests of women and children, such as the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, the Marriage Law and the Law on the Protection of Minors. Throughout the country, various activities have been organized to enhance people’s legal awareness and provide legal assistance through legal counselling, on-site assistance, lectures by specialists, case analysis and other means.

    Enhancing the role of the media to create a social environment conducive to the elimination of violence against women. In recent years, the media has increased exposure of the issue of violence against women by providing live court coverage of typical cases of violations of women’s rights and interests, such as domestic violence, illegal detention of women, and abducting and trafficking in women. In these court proceedings, judges used individual cases to explain the law, warning people that the violation of women’s rights and interests is in violation of the law and that perpetrators will be punished. Moreover, the media has created women’s columns or provided special coverage, and organized public discussions of issues concerning domestic violence and violence against women, treating topics such as how to protect oneself from domestic violence in order to inform women of ways to deal with the problem. In early 2002, a series of television programmes on domestic violence was aired for the first time, arousing much interest among the public.

    Strengthening international cooperation to combat the abduction of and trafficking in women and children. As of June 2002, the Chinese Government had signed extradition treaties with more than 10 countries and treaties on mutual legal assistance in criminal matters with over 20 countries. By means of these treaties, China carries out mutual legal assistance in criminal matters with other countries to combat the abduction of and trafficking in women. Moreover, the Chinese police have signed over 40 agreements of cooperation in police matters with the police authorities from other countries, making the fight against the abduction of and trafficking in women an important area of cooperation. In 2001, the Interpol China National Central Bureau, in cooperation with the Cambodian police authorities, cracked a transnational case of abduction of and trafficking in women and organized prostitution. From 1999 to 2000, in cooperation with UNICEF, the Ministry of Public Security conducted public awareness campaigns on the prevention of the abduction of and trafficking in women and children in the 10 provinces most seriously affected by these crimes. The Ministry organized 15 training sessions on safeguarding women’s rights and interests for civil police at the ministerial and provincial levels, providing training for over 2,000 civil police. The Ministry also conducted extensive campaigns in various forms at labour markets, train stations, ports and open-air markets in these provinces, with the view to enhancing the public’s ability to prevent such crimes. Tens of thousands of people benefited from these awareness campaigns. Under the cooperation programme between the Chinese Government and UNICEF (2001-2005), the Ministry of Public Security and the All-China Women’s Federation are jointly implementing programmes to suppress and combat domestic and transnational crimes relating to the abduction of and trafficking in women and children, focusing on the prevention and suppression of such activities and the rehabilitation and reintegration of those involved. The Chinese Government is actively cooperating with countries from the Mekong region to combat the abduction of and trafficking in women and children, with the Ministries of Public Security, Labour, Education as well as other ministries and departments involved in these efforts. From 2001 to 2003, the All-China Women’s Federation and the International Labour Organization jointly implemented in Yunnan province a project to combat the abduction of and trafficking in women and children in the Mekong River region, providing effective awareness campaigns and prevention and rehabilitation services, establishing sound and comprehensive local mechanisms to combat such crimes in that area, and actively exploring strategies and models of prevention work that merit expansion.

    Assiduously carrying out the work of assisting and resettling rescued women, as well as of educating, reforming and rehabilitating those involved in prostitution. Rescue of abducted and trafficked women is an important responsibility of Governments and law enforcement agencies at all levels, and it is equally important to help these women recover and resettle. In cooperation with UNICEF, the Ministry of Public Security has set up three large transition centres providing rehabilitation and training in Yunnan, Jiangsu and Sichuan provinces to rescued women and children. Rescued adults who wish to remain at their current locations will have their wishes respected; marriage registration procedures will be processed for those who wish to marry and are legally eligible for marriage; issues of child custody should be resolved by the concerned parties through negotiation or by court ruling in accordance with the women’s rights and interests; for those wishing to return to their hometown, law enforcement and civic agencies as well as non-governmental organizations such as women’s federations will make arrangements concerning their means of livelihood, and to educate their families and the public not to discriminate against them. More than 2,000 women have been rescued so far and are beginning to recover physically and psychologically.

    The departments and agencies concerned have also done much effective work in the field of educating, reforming and rehabilitating those involved in prostitution. In addition to institutions to receive and reform prostitutes, others are being set up to receive and correct those who resort to prostitutes. The construction of such correctional institutions is incorporated into the infrastructure planning of the National Planning Commission, and 160 have been set up throughout the country so far. At the same time, law enforcement agencies nationwide have stepped up their efforts to set uniform standards for the operation of these correctional institutions. The departments and agencies concerned have joined forces to improve the education, reform and rehabilitation process, resulting in a 70 per cent non-recidivism rate for women released from such institutions. Most prostitutes and those who resort to them have given up this vice and turned to a new life.

    Adopting local laws and regulations to prevent and curb domestic violence. The new Marriage Law adopted in 2001 explicitly prohibits domestic violence. Article 43 of that Law stipulates that, in cases of domestic violence, the victim shall have the right to make a petition and the public security organ shall stop the violence, thus providing the legal basis for law enforcement agencies to fulfil their responsibility of accepting and intervening in domestic violence cases as well as preventing and curbing such violence. Domestic violence is now an issue of much public concern. At the national level, steps being taken in this area include:

    (1) Twenty-three Government departments and non-Governmental organizations, including the Supreme People’s Procuratorate, the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Public Security, have established a joint commission on safeguarding the rights and interests of women and children; similar commissions exist at provincial, municipal and autonomous-regional levels.

    (2) National seminars and workshops on preventing and curbing domestic violence are being held; training programmes on suppressing domestic violence are being organized at national and local levels.

    (3) Research teams are being sent to the United States, Canada, Australia, the Philippines and other countries to study the work of preventing and curbing domestic violence in those countries.

    (4) The China Law Society has established a policy research and intervention project on suppressing domestic violence against women.

    (5) Training material for law enforcement personnel on curbing domestic violence against women is being developed in order to enhance the awareness of law enforcement personnel regarding domestic violence issues and to provide training for the police.

    Local Governments have also taken various measures and adopted related regulations. For example, Hunan and Liaoning Provinces, the Bayannur League of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and the municipalities of Xi’an in Shaanxi Province, Tangshan in Hebei Province, Huzhou in Zhejiang Province, and Changzhou in Jiangsu Province, and others have developed regulations and measures to prevent and suppress domestic violence, and to coordinate the efforts of various departments to form a network in combating it. At present, more than 30 provinces and municipalities throughout the country have developed local regulations against domestic violence. The Public Security Bureau of Shenyang Province has established a 110 Domestic Violence Emergency Call Centre to handle such cases and complaints; Shaanxi Province has organized awareness and intervention training programmes on domestic violence that has provided training for more than 200 police, judges and judicial personnel; and Hubei and some other provinces have conducted “white ribbon” campaigns, providing training for women’s-rights focal points and key officials at district, community, township, neighbourhood-committee and village-committee levels. Training programmes for male law enforcement personnel, male local officials, and male citizens have also been organized.

    Taking various measures and means to rescue women victims. In 1996, the Ministry of Justice and the All-China Women’s Federation jointly issued a Circular on Protecting Women’s Legitimate Rights and Interests and on Providing Better Legal Aid for Women. The Circular provides that legal aid agencies, law offices, notary offices and grass-roots legal aid organizations shall not decline to handle or unduly delay cases concerning allegations, complaints, or reported incidents of violation of women’s rights and interests. They shall reduce, as appropriate, legal service fees or provide service free of charge for indigent women victims. At present, there are 2,389 legal aid agencies at the central, provincial/regional, municipal/local and county/county-level city levels in 31 provinces, regions and municipalities. Beijing has opened the first domestic violence forensic clinic; Qingdao has set up a forensic centre for domestic violence related injuries. On another front, non-governmental organizations are taking action as well. Women’s federations at different levels have joined with local law enforcement agencies to set up legal aid branches and coordination organizations such as joint commissions on protecting women’s rights. More than 7,000 cadres from women’s federations have served on special juries. These non-governmental organizations include, for example, the Legal Aid Centre of Jiangsu Province for Women’s Rights and Interests, the Women’s Rights Unit of the Legal Aid Centre of Heilongjiang Province, and the Women’s Unit of the Legal Aid Centre of Fujian Province. These organizations provide shelter, medical treatment, and psychological and legal counselling to those women victimized by violence, enabling them to seek legal remedies in accordance with national laws.

    Enhancing the role of society at large and non-governmental organizations in the common fight against violence towards women. In 1992, the Women’s Institute of the China Management Sciences Academy opened the first national women’s hotline. Since then, the All-China Women’s Federation and its branches at different levels have opened up women’s hotlines, complaint mailboxes and centres, providing help to women victims. Some universities and non-governmental organizations have also set up legal aid centres. For example, the Women’s Federation of Tangshan City in Hebei Province takes combating domestic violence as a key area of work in safeguarding women’s rights, and has set up more than 270 anti-domestic-violence groups at the municipal, county, township (community) and village (neighbourhood) levels to provide women with legal services. According to provisional statistics, some 1,000 hotlines have been opened at and above the county level by non-Governmental organizations and other social actors. Based on statistics from 10 provinces, 48 legal aid centres have been established by women’s federations.

    The Chinese Government fully realizes that gender-based violence takes place in public and private life regardless of ethnic origin, cultural background or social level. Violence can, to a certain extent, hamper women’s development, restricting their access to resources and their participation in social activities. The Chinese Government has made tremendous efforts to curb violence against women, but much remains to be done: the abduction of and trafficking in women and violence against women have yet to be eliminated; effective mechanisms to protect women from being victimized by violence have yet to be developed to enhance the various aspects of work in this area aimed at stopping violence and providing aid and treatment to the victims; national anti-domestic violence is still lacking; the public’s awareness of the law and gender issues is still low and society is not sensitive to the issue of violence against women; and further improvements are needed in social support systems for victims.

    Prisons in China attach much importance to protecting female inmates’ rights in accordance with the law. Male and female inmates are confined and administered separately, with female inmates directly administered by female officers. In consideration of female inmates’ particular physiological needs, female doctors are assigned to conduct regular physical check-ups. Female inmates are allowed to spend holidays with their young children. They are provided with vocational training relevant to their work experience and the needs of the job market, and psychological-health education as well as cultural and recreational activities are also provided for them.

    Women comprise 10 per cent of China’s public security force and 25 per cent of the personnel in the judicial system; 13.9 per cent of the total number of lawyers in China are women.

    Article 7

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the political and public life of the country and, in particular, shall ensure to women, on equal terms with men, the right:

    (a) To vote in all elections and public referenda and to be eligible for election to all publicly elected bodies;

    (b) To participate in the formulation of government policy and the implementation thereof and to hold public office and perform all public functions at all levels of government;

    (c) To participate in non-governmental organizations and associations concerned with the public and political life of the country.

    The Chinese Government gives special attention to women’s participation in government and politics. It is explicitly stipulated in the Constitution that women enjoy the same rights to vote and to stand for election as men, and these provisions are being implemented accordingly. However, as deep-rooted gender discrimination still exists, and an enabling social environment for women’s participation in government and politics has yet to be fully developed, the Chinese Government considers it imperative to take special measures to ensure women’s equal access to power and resources. In this respect, major measures taken include:

    Developing necessary indicators as a measure to help ensure women’s representation in government and politics. The Decision of the Fifth Meeting of the Eighth Session of the National People’s Congress (NPC) on the Number of Deputies and Electoral Procedure of the Ninth Session of the National People’s Congress issued in March 1997 stipulated that the percentage of women deputies to the ninth session of the NPC should be higher than that of the Eighth Session. The Ninth Session of the NPC, held in 1998, had 650 women deputies, or 21.81 per cent of the total; 17 women deputies served as members of its standing committee, representing 12.69 per cent of the total; and there were two women vice-chairpersons, representing 10 per cent of the total. The ninth session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) had 341 women members, or 15.54 per cent of the total; 29 women members served on the standing committee, or 8.97 per cent, and one woman was elected vice-chairperson, representing 3 per cent of the total. The number of women deputies to the Ninth NPC increased by 0.78 per cent over the previous session, while the number of women members of the Ninth CPPCC increased by 2.02 per cent. At the end of October 2002, the 29 ministries and commissions of the State Council had among them 15 women ministers and deputy ministers. The tenth session of the National People’s Congress, held in 2003, had 604 women deputies, or 20.24 per cent of the total; 21 members of its standing committee, or 13.20 per cent, and 3 vice-chairpersons or 18.8 per cent, were women. The tenth session of the CPPCC had 373 women members, representing 16.70 per cent of the total; 35 women members served on its standing committee, representing 11.71 per cent of the total, and there were two women vice-chairpersons, representing 8 per cent of the total. The 10th NPC and 10th CPPCC registered an increase in both the number and the percentage of women members serving on their standing committees and in the number of women vice-chairpersons over their previous sessions. The 10th NPC also elected one female Vice Premier and one female State Councillor.

    The Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (1995-2000) set out well-defined goals relating to women’s participation in government and politics, among which were, increasing women’s participation in the decision-making process and in the administration of State and social affairs; renewing efforts to ensure women’s representation in core leadership teams at all levels; attaining, by the end of [the twentieth] century, a minimum of one woman member in core leadership teams of Party and Government organizations at the provincial, autonomous-regional, and municipal levels; and having at least one female member, while striving for two, in the core leadership teams of Party and Government organizations at the district/city, county/prefecture, and village/township levels. The goals set in the Programme had generally been achieved by the end of 2000. Building on these achievements, the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010) set additional goals, among which were increasing the percentage of women in public administration; to have more than one woman member in the core leadership teams of Government at all levels; having women members in core leadership teams in over half of all the ministries and commissions of the central Government as well as Government departments at the provincial and regional levels; significantly increasing the number of women holding major or important positions; gradually increasing the percentage of women in public service; ensuring that the percentage of women holding managerial positions in female-dominated sectors and industries is in proportion to the percentage of women employees therein; and ensuring that an appropriate percentage of women serve on village committees and urban neighbourhood committees.

    By the end of 2001, the core leadership teams of the central Party and Government had 46 women members; in the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and major municipalities, there were 52 women members in the core leadership teams of the Party and Government; local Party and Government organs in 393 large cities had a total of 593 women members in their core leadership teams; and local Party and Government organs in 2,809 counties had more than 4,000 women members in their core leadership teams.

    Developing plans to strengthen guidance in the training and selection of women candidates for leadership positions. At the 4th and 5th sessions of the National Conference on the Training and Selection of Women Cadres, held in 1998 and 2001 respectively, recommendations were developed on ways to improve the training and selection of women cadres, and Governments at all levels were requested to integrate training and selection of women cadres into their main agendas as well as their human-resources development plans. An enabling environment that gives importance to and is supportive of women’s participation in Government and politics is taking shape.

    Strengthening the development of women cadres to enhance their abilities and skills related to participation in Government and politics. Measures taken include: organizing training sessions for women cadres on new developments in economics, political affairs, culture, science and technology, law, administration and other fields; organizing study tours of economically advanced areas in China or abroad for women cadres to broaden their horizons; promoting practical training of women cadres by systematically sending selected cadres to less-developed areas in western China, to economically more-developed areas, or to the trade, financial or legal sectors for cross-training, so as to better equip them with the management skills required for the market-economy environment; and encouraging women cadres to strive for self-respect, self-confidence, self-reliance and self-empowerment, to keep up with times, and to strive for even higher goals.

    Emphasizing the training of women cadres at the grass-roots level with a view to developing a pool of qualified women candidates for selection for leadership positions. Over the past few years, Governments at all levels have adopted a number of effective measures, such as making “enrolment with service obligation” arrangements with relevant institutions of higher education to train women cadres for grass-roots organizations; selecting outstanding female college students to work at grass-roots-level organizations; continuing the practice of selecting outstanding young women cadres from Government institutions at the country level and above, especially from female-dominated industries, sectors and enterprises, to work in leadership positions at grass-roots-level organizations; requiring township Governments and urban neighbourhood committees to ensure women’s representation in their recruitment, and to give preference to women candidates when recruiting from among equally qualified candidates; and organizing training for women cadres at the grass-roots level with the assistance of institutions of public administration at all levels.

    Attaching great importance to the election of village committees and the training of grass-roots women cadres at the village level. The percentage of women serving on village committees dropped slightly with the introduction of direct election of village committees in China. In 1999, the Ministry of Civil Affairs issued a circular on securing proper representation of women on village committees to ensure that women would be elected to the committees, and hence would be able to participate in their management and decision-making processes. Moreover, Governments at all levels as well as non-governmental organizations also devoted special attention to this issue, and took various measures in this regard.

    For example, in Hunan Province, the following steps were taken to ensure women’s representation on village committees and the implementation of the Organic Law of Village Committees:

    (1) Adopting relevant laws and regulations. The Provincial People’s Congress issued, in 1999 and 2000 respectively, circulars on measures for the implementation of the Organic Law on Village Committees and on electoral procedures for villagers’ committees in Hunan Province, stipulating that villagers’ committees shall have a minimum of one woman member.

    (2) Launching vigorous campaigns to publicize the Organic Law of Village Committees in order to enhance villagers’, especially women’s, awareness and understanding of the Law and their rights under it.

    (3) Issuing special circulars. The Department of Civil Affairs of the Province issued a circular on measures to ensure women’s election to and representation on village committees.

    (4) Organizing election-related training sessions for women. During village committee elections, civil-affairs sections of local governments worked with women’s groups to organize election-related training sessions for women villagers to raise their awareness of their rights and motivate them to get actively involved in the elections.

    (5) Conducting inspections. Civil-affairs sections of local governments carried out inspections to monitor the elections for village committees, and ordered villages that failed to elect women members to their committees to hold remedial by-elections in strict compliance with the law.

    The fifth round of village committee elections were held in Hunan Province from January to June 2002 as required by law. Later review by civil-affairs sections of local Governments found that out of the 37,264 villages that had completed elections, 200 had failed to elect women candidates to their committees. As a result, remedial by-elections were held in those villages to ensure women’s equal participation in the decision-making process.

    Giving full play to women’s role in urban residents’ self-governance and community development. Currently, women typically make up more than

    70 per cent of the members serving on urban neighbourhood committees throughout the country.

    Enabling non-governmental organizations to play a role in the common effort to promote women’s participation in Government and politics. In their efforts to promote women’s participation in government and politics, women’s non-governmental organizations take into consideration the special conditions of China as well as Chinese women’s level of development. The role of non-governmental organizations includes bringing to the attention of People’s Congresses, Governments, and political consultative conferences at all levels, through various channels, obstacles hindering women’s participation in government and politics; promoting and monitoring the development and implementation of laws and regulations, policies and measures designed to facilitate women’s participation in Government and politics; urging Government agencies to integrate training and selection of women leaders into their agendas and overall planning. Women non-governmental organizations, in cooperation with Government bodies, have contributed to the quickened pace of women’s participation in government and politics. The All-China Women’s Federation, in particular, launched public-awareness campaigns on gender equality, conducted research on the status of women’s participation in Government and politics, organized leadership training courses for women cadres, developed a database of women of excellence, and recommended qualified women candidates for leadership posts. According to statistics, during the 1998/1999 local people’s congress elections at the county and township levels, in Guangxi Autonomous Region, local women’s federations recommended a total of 3,675 qualified women candidates, of whom 1,789 received appointments, representing a success rate of 48.6 per cent. Five hundred twenty-two chairpersons of township women’s federations were elected to leadership positions in local people’s congresses and governments.

    Paying special attention to the training of women cadres of minority ethnicity. Deputies of minority ethnicities to the Ninth session of the NPC accounted for 14.3 per cent of the total, somewhat higher than the percentage of ethnic minorities in the population as a whole (8.41 per cent); among them 131 or 30.6 per cent were women. At the Tenth session of the NPC, deputies of minority ethnicity accounted for 13.88 per cent of the total, among them 134 or 32.37 per cent were women. According to 1999 statistics, the number of women cadres of minority ethnicity reached 924,000, accounting for 33 per cent of the total number of cadres of minority ethnicity.

    With regard to the training of women cadres of minority ethnicity, in addition to the above-mentioned measures, the Government has also strengthened the training of ethnic-minority women cadres by taking into account the special conditions of the minority areas, temporarily posting them to more developed provinces, districts or cities for leadership training. In December 2000, the State Ethnic Affairs Commission organized a training programme for women cadres of minority ethnicity from the western regions of China. At the local level, ethnic affairs commissions in ethnic-minority autonomous regions also organized training for women cadres. For example, in the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region, a total of 112,324 women cadres have benefited from various theoretical and operational training courses since 1995. To enable ethnic-minority women cadres to make even greater and faster progress, autonomous areas are temporarily posting selected women cadres to more-developed interior provinces and districts for leadership training.

    While women’s participation in Government and politics has increased owing to the concerted efforts of the Government and all sectors of society, the overall level of participation is still not high because of constraints associated with levels of development, employment, education, and availability of social assistance, as well as the continued influence of traditional ideas. Moreover, as the socialist market economy continues to develop and be refined, women are facing new challenges and problems in the endeavour to participate in public and political life. For example, the numbers and qualifications of women cadres are not commensurate with the needs of economic reform and the processes of political democratization and women’s development; progress in women’s participation is uneven among different regions and sectors, reflecting women’s underrepresentation in senior decision-making positions in the Government, economic and management sectors, as well as in grass-roots organizations in rural areas; women holding core leadership positions are more likely to hold deputy positions, and those holding high-ranking positions tend to be advanced in age; the training and development of qualified women cadres remains relatively weak and the number of women cadres is less than adequate; and women cadres’ knowledge of science and technology, as well as their level of education and psychological training need to be improved. In light of the foregoing, much needs to be done in the field of women’s participation in government and politics. Mechanisms for equal competition need to be improved on an ongoing basis in the context of organizational and personnel reform; extensive public-awareness campaigns on gender equality and women’s participation in decision-making need to be conducted; plans for training and selection of women cadres need to be developed and implemented; and a pool of well-trained women cadres needs to be developed for selection to leadership positions.

    Article 8

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure to women, on equal terms with men and without any discrimination, the opportunity to represent their Governments at the international level and to participate in the work of international organizations.

    At present, there are 305 staff of Chinese nationality working in the United Nations system, among whom 121, or 39 per cent, are women.

    Table 1

    Number of Chinese Staff in the United Nations system as of 30 April 2003


    Total
    Male
    Female
    Percentage female
    USG
    1
    1

    D-2
    3
    2
    1
    33%
    D-1
    9
    5
    4
    44%
    P-5
    27
    20
    7
    26%
    P-4
    82
    57
    25
    30%
    P-3
    65
    39
    26
    40%
    P-2
    19
    8
    11
    58%
    L-5
    3
    2
    1
    30%
    L-3
    3
    2
    1
    30%
    G-7
    5
    2
    3
    60%
    G-6
    11
    6
    5
    45%
    G-5
    30
    14
    16
    53%
    G-4
    35
    20
    15
    43%
    G-3
    5
    3
    2
    40%
    S-2
    1
    1
    100%
    FS-4
    1
    1

    FS-3
    2
    2

    PIA-2
    3
    3
    100%
    TC-5
    1
    1

    Totals:
    305
    184
    121
    39%

    The Chinese Government attaches great importance to women’s participation in international affairs. Women are included in every official delegation sent to international and regional conferences, as for example the delegations to the Special Session of the General Assembly on Women in 2000 and that on Children in 2002, both headed by the then State Councillor Ms. Wu Yi.

    In China, there are 1,239 women working in the field of foreign affairs, accounting for 28.5 per cent of the total. As of July 2002, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs had 6 women ambassadors, 4 women consuls-general, and 46 women counsellors in its overseas agencies, accounting for 4 per cent, 7.7 per cent, and 15.2 per cent respectively among diplomats of those ranks. There were 226 women at home and 180 abroad with the rank of First Secretary in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accounting for 36.8 per cent and 31.5 per cent respectively among Ministry staff of that rank, while women with the rank of Second Secretary numbered 169 at home and 82 abroad, accounting for 33.7 per cent and 27.8 per cent respectively among staff of that rank. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Trade provide examples of the representation of Chinese women in international organizations. According to figures from those Ministries, a total of eight women have been selected by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to work in international organizations on behalf of the Chinese Government, or 24.2 per cent of the total selected for that purpose. Among them, two serve at higher levels, with the highest being the Director of the Documentation Division of the Department for General Assembly and Conference Management at the New York Headquarters of the United Nations. The Ministry of Foreign Trade, on the other hand, has nominated five women to work in international organizations, accounting for 18 per cent of the total number of the international staff sent by the Ministry of Foreign Trade (27). Among them, two are senior staff at or above the level of deputy divisional director (D level) and three are professionals (P level) representing respectively 50 per cent of the total number of senior staff (4), and 13 per cent of the total professional staff (23). Many other governmental agencies have also nominated their women staff to work in international organizations.

    In order to increase the number of Chinese women working in international organizations as representatives of the Government, China has taken the following measures:

    (1) Upholding the principles of gender equality and non-discrimination, actively nominating women to serve in international organizations. In the selection process, following the common practice of international organizations, priority is given to women from among candidates with the same qualifications.

    (2) Consciously placing more women in operating units that deal with international organizations, so as to give them more exposure to international affairs and a better understanding of international organizations, thus helping them broaden their horizons and accumulate multilateral work experience.

    (3) Improving women’s overall qualifications and preparedness to work for international organizations by enhancing their training in foreign languages and professional expertise, as well as through cross-training programmes. Ministry of Foreign Affairs statistics show that since 1996, 65 women cadres have received academic training, 3,491 were given theoretical or operational training, 88 were offered overseas training or study tours, and 4,570 participated in cross-training programmes.

    Article 9

    1. States Parties shall grant women equal rights with men to acquire, change or retain their nationality. They shall ensure in particular that neither marriage to an alien nor change of nationality by the husband during marriage shall automatically change the nationality of the wife, render her stateless or force upon her the nationality of the husband.

    2. States Parties shall grant women equal rights with men with respect to the nationality of their children.

    Chinese women enjoy the same rights as men with regard to acquiring, changing, and retaining their nationality. Husbands and wives can both bestow their nationalities upon their foreign spouses, and neither shall force the other party to abandon or change nationality. The Nationality Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates that foreign nationals or stateless persons who are willing to abide by China’s Constitution and laws and who meet one of the following conditions may be naturalized upon approval of their applications: (1) they are near relatives of Chinese nationals; (2) they have settled in China; or (3) they have other legitimate reasons.

    Women have the same rights as men in deciding their children’s nationality. The Nationality Law stipulates that any person born in China whose parents are both Chinese nationals or one of whose parents is a Chinese national shall have Chinese nationality; any person born abroad whose parents are both Chinese nationals or one of whose parents is a Chinese national shall have Chinese nationality; but a person whose parents are both Chinese nationals and have both settled abroad, or one of whose parents is a Chinese national and has settled abroad, and who has acquired foreign nationality at birth shall not have Chinese nationality.

    All Chinese citizens, male and female, have the right to change nationality. The Nationality Law stipulates that Chinese nationals who meet one of the following conditions may renounce Chinese nationality upon approval of their applications: (1) they are near relatives of foreign nationals; (2) they have settled abroad; or (3) they have other legitimate reasons.

    Article 10

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in order to ensure to them equal rights with men in the field of education and in particular to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women:

    (a) The same conditions for career and vocational guidance, for access to studies and for the achievement of diplomas in educational establishments of all categories in rural as well as in urban areas; this equality shall be ensured in pre-school, general, technical, professional and higher technical education, as well as in all types of vocational training;

    (b) Access to the same curricula, the same examinations, teaching staff with qualifications of the same standard and school premises and equipment of the same quality;

    (c) The elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women at all levels and in all forms of education by encouraging coeducation and other types of education which will help to achieve this aim and, in particular, by the revision of textbooks and school programmes and the adaptation of teaching methods;

    (d) The same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants;

    (e) The same opportunities for access to programmes of continuing education, including adult and functional literacy programmes, particularly those aimed at reducing, at the earliest possible time, any gap in education existing between men and women;

    (f) The reduction of female student drop-out rates and the organization of programmes for girls and women who have left school prematurely;

    (g) The same Opportunities to participate actively in sports and physical education;

    (h) Access to specific educational information to help to ensure the health and well-being of families, including information and advice on family planning.

    The Chinese Government has always supported the equal enjoyment of the right to education for women. The Constitution, the Compulsory Education Law, the Law on Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests and other relevant laws provide that women enjoy the same right to education as men. The education policy of the Chinese Government is to universalize nine-year compulsory education and improve secondary education, and at the same time develop vocational education, vigorously promote higher education and adult education, and support various kinds of private schools. As of 2002, the enrolment rate for China’s school-age children at the elementary level was 98.58 per cent, with the rate for girls reaching 98.53 per cent. There were 57,381,300 girl students in elementary schools nationwide, or 47.20 per cent of the total; 38,702,000 in secondary schools, or 46.70 per cent of the total; 5,144,800 in secondary vocational-training institutions (including regular vocational secondary schools, adult vocational-training and specialized secondary schools, but not including skill worker schools, or 51.86 per cent of the total; and 3,970,400 in regular higher-education institutions, or 43.95 per cent of the total.

    By the end of 2002, more than 90 per cent of the population was covered by the nine-year compulsory education programme in those areas where it was being implemented. In order to realize the universalization of the nine-year compulsory education throughout the country, the Government is giving priority to poverty-stricken rural areas, minority-inhabited areas, children of migrant workers in urban areas and girl children, mainly by taking the following measures:

    Setting up a system to assess, recognize and reward results achieved in implementing the nine-year compulsory education programme. In 1994, the State promulgated methods for assessing and recognizing achievements in the Nine-year Compulsory Education Programme, which set specific targets for the universalization of compulsory education, teacher qualifications, the quality of education and education funding. The Government of each county initiates a yearly self-evaluation process, the result of which is subject to review and verification by Government at the provincial level, as well as to random checks by the Ministry of Education later on.

    Supporting the universalization of compulsory education in poor areas and minority-inhabited regions. In order to expedite the process of universalizing compulsory education, the Chinese Government developed and implemented a Project on Compulsory Education in Poor Areas during the Ninth Five-Year Plan. For this project, the central Government earmarked 3.9 billion yuan renminbi of special funding and 8.6 billion yuan renminbi in matching funds were provided by local Governments, totalling 12.5 yuan renminbi to support poor areas in central and western China in facilitating the promotion of compulsory education. The State organized support activities by implementing projects in which schools in the east coastal areas send aid to schools in poor western areas and schools in cities send aid to schools in poor rural areas within the same province, autonomous region or municipality. Through these projects, qualified teachers and administrators are sent to recipient areas to improve the quality of education. Material and financial support are also provided to help improve school infrastructures in recipient areas. In order to expand the opportunities of education for minority children, therefore, the enrolment rate of these school-aged children, the Chinese Government has also established elementary and secondary boarding schools for minority children from poor and inaccessible mountainous regions, provided free textbooks and set up scholarships.

    Reforming the curriculum of elementary and secondary schools to promote the active and energetic development of all boys and girls. In June 1999, the State Council decided to deepen the reform of the school curriculum, vigorously promote the concept of quality education, and develop the innovative spirit and practical skills of students. The purpose of the reform is to empower the population; by adjusting and redesigning the structure of the curriculum, making it more balanced, comprehensive and varied, it is designed to help students develop individually in a balanced and comprehensive manner. Attention is also paid to the relevance of the curriculum to student’s life and the development of science and technology in modern society, and to the mainstreaming of the gender perspective in curriculum materials. Curriculum administration is carried out at the national, local and school levels, so as to better adapt the curriculum to the needs of the locality, school and student.

    Giving high priority to the education of vulnerable population, i.e. girl children, children with disabilities and children of migrant workers in urban areas. Chinese laws and regulations explicitly provide that girl children, children with disabilities and children of migrant workers in urban areas enjoy the right of equal access to compulsory education. Guaranteeing this right is an important responsibility of the Governments, and requires preferential consideration in the areas of policy and funding. Enrolment and drop-out rates for school-aged girl children are important indicators used in assessing and recognizing achievements in the compulsory education programme. Local authorities have developed need-based teaching materials for girls, focusing on simple and easy-to-learn work skills and local cultures. Flexible teaching approaches are also used to facilitate girls’ attendance at school, such as half-day schools, farm-study schools, and allowing girls to attend school with younger siblings; boarding arrangements are made for girls in mountainous and pastoral areas, and mutual-assistance groups are organized among families in order to guarantee that girls attend school. Through cooperation with international organizations, local authorities have designed education projects for girls, especially courses for girls in junior secondary schools such as farming, animal husbandry, embroidery and computer applications. Such practical skills are intended to help girls develop their abilities to be self-sufficient and to earn a livelihood. In rural areas, enrolment rates for girls are an important benchmark in setting local regulations, as well as in selecting recipients of “Model Family of Five Virtues”, and “Model Village, Model Household” awards.

    In 1989, the State set up a special education subsidy for the compulsory education of children with disabilities. As of 2001, this subsidy amounted to 260 million yuan renminbi, while Governments at all levels have earmarked 2 billion yuan renminbi cumulatively for special education subsidies. In order to ensure that children of migrant workers in urban areas have access to compulsory education, special policies and measures have been adopted to help these children overcome the difficulties they encounter in their education. It is provided that the Governments of the receiving cities shall bear the primary administrative responsibility for their education, and that the public schools shall play the primary role in educating the children of migrant workers.

    Mobilizing the entire society to actively support and engage in the compulsory education programme. The Chinese Government encourages civil society to actively support compulsory education by stipulating that enterprises, institutions, social groups and individuals making donations to compulsory education in rural areas can deduct the full amount of such donations from their taxable incomes. All sectors of society have used various kinds of methods to support compulsory education in rural areas and poor regions. Statistics indicate that contributions to compulsory education in rural areas amounted to 31 billion yuan renminbi between 1996 to 2000. The Hope Project launched by the China Youth Development Foundation has raised about 1.93 billion yuan renminbi to build 8,300 “Hope Primary Schools”, helping 2.3 million drop-out children return to schools, and training 2,300 primary school teachers from poor areas. The All China Women’s Federation and the China Children and Teenagers’ Fund jointly organized and launched the “Spring Bud Plan” to support the schooling of girls from poor families. So far, the plan has helped 1.3 million girls return to school. All these initiatives have played an effective role in universalizing compulsory education, raising the enrolment rate of girls and reducing their drop-out rates.

    The Chinese Government pays great attention to women’s literacy, making the elimination of illiteracy among women a priority in the advancement of women’s education and empowerment, and has carried out literacy activities to this end nationwide, particularly in rural areas. In collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science and Technology, the All China Women’s Federation has implemented a project for women in rural areas, integrating literacy activities with the learning of practical skills. According to statistics, in the 10 years since the project began, nearly 20 million women achieved literacy.

    As of 2000, there were 61.81 million adult women illiterates, among whom 15.03 million were young or middle aged, accounting for 4.21 per cent of all young and middle-aged women in China. The Outline of the Ninth Five-Year Plan, the Long-Range Objectives for the year 2010, the Outline on Reform and Development of Education in China, and the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women all set specific targets for literacy among those young and middle-aged women. In this regard, the following measures have been adopted:

    Promulgating the Regulations on Literacy Programmes and methods of assessing and recognizing achievements in eliminating illiteracy among youth and adults. The Ministry of Education has established a Literacy Award to recognize those organizations which have contributed to literacy efforts and individuals who have made significant progress in achieving literacy. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Finance have also co-established an incentive system to recognize local Governments that achieved outstanding results in their literacy programmes. The All-China Women’s Federation and the Ministry of Education have set up the Women’s Literacy Award, to be presented to organizations and individuals in recognition of their achievements in literacy efforts on behalf of women.

    Integrating literacy programmes with poverty-alleviation efforts. By adopting a policy of promoting development through education and guaranteeing education through economic development, it is hoped that the women’s literacy campaign, especially continuous post-literacy education, will become self-sustaining.

    Establishing a life-long education network for women. To improve the quality of women’s education, a continuous life-long education network for women has been established, beginning with literacy classes, then practical-skills training, followed educational radio-broadcast classes or correspondence classes in rural areas, and culminating in applying for professional or technical function titles to achieve all-round development.

    The Chinese Government encourages and supports schools funded and managed by the private sector. In 1997, the State Council promulgated the Regulations on Schools run by the Non-Governmental Sector. These provide that the State shall actively encourage, strongly support, properly guide and robustly administer schools funded by the non-Governmental sector. Local authorities have developed their own rules pursuant to these Regulations. The Standing Committee of the Ninth National People’s Congress considered and adopted the Private Education Promotion Law in December 2002. Under these State policies, non-Governmental schools have developed rapidly and their numbers have increased considerably. In 2002, there were 61,200 privately run schools (including kindergartens, primary schools, regular secondary schools, vocational schools, colleges and other higher-education institutions), an increase of over 32,000 from 1996. Total enrolment was 11,159,700, or 8,085,600 more than 1996.

    With the development of science and technology education in recent years, gender disparities in education are narrowing continuously. The proportion of women at all levels of education is increasing; the proportion of female students in secondary vocational schools has been increasing yearly, and surpassed 50 per cent since 1995.

    The Chinese Government has devoted much effort to developing higher education. Between 1998 to 2002, the percentage of women students in regular colleges and universities increased annually, from 38.31 per cent (1998), 39.66 per cent (1999), 40.98 per cent (2000), 42.04 per cent (2001), and 43.95 (2002) respectively. Four women’s colleges have been accredited by the Ministry of Education. China Women’s College, Xi’an Peihua Women’s University, Hunan Women’s Vocational University and Fujian Huanan Women’s Vocational College. There are 75,765 women instructors holding positions at or above the level of associate professor, accounting for 30.14 per cent of the total. This reflects the advancement of women in the cultural, scientific and technological spheres, and the numbers of women scientists and engineers are also increasing. Currently, there are over 9.88 million women scientists and engineers, accounting for 36.9 per cent of the total. In 2000, there were 579,000 women engaging in scientific research and general technical services, or 35.2 per cent of the total, reflecting an increase of 1.4 per cent from 1999. In 2001, there were 12,122 women professionals and technicians in the Chinese Academy of Sciences System, accounting for 33.5 per cent of the total. Among them, there were 2,962 women holding senior professional titles, accounting for 24 per cent of the total; 5,721 holding mid-level professional titles, or 47 per cent of the total; 1,416 holding doctoral degrees, or 14 per cent of the total; and 5,106 holding college degrees, accounting for 42 per cent of the total. As of 2002, there were 78 women among the 1,263 members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering, representing 6.2 per cent of the total membership, an increase of 0.3 per cent compared with 1996, when there were only 33 women members, or 5.9 per cent of the total. These women members made outstanding achievements in such fields as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geo-science, mechanical and delivery-system engineering, information technology and electronic engineering, chemical engineering, metallurgy and material science, energy and mineralogy, civil engineering, hydraulic engineering, architecture, agriculture, light industry, textile industry, environmental science, medicine and medical sciences. They have won respect and admiration from all circles of society. Between 1997 and 2001, 1,709 women won such annual national awards as the National Award for Natural Science, the National Award for Technical Inventions and the National Award for Progress in Science and Technology, accounting for 16 per cent of the total recipients or an increase of 4 per cent over that of 1997. Between 1998 and 2001, the percentages of women applying for and being awarded funds for projects funded by National Natural Science Foundation also increased from year to year, with the percentage in 2001 reaching 16.46 per cent, 3 per cent higher than in 1998. New generations of women intellectuals are making prominent contributions in science, education, medicine and public health, poverty-alleviation through science and technology, and the popularization of science and cultural knowledge.

    Article 11

    1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular:

    (a) The right to work as an inalienable right of all human beings;

    (b) The right to the same employment opportunities, including the application of the same criteria for selection in matters of employment;

    (c) The right to free choice of profession and employment, the right to promotion, job security and all benefits and conditions of service and the right to receive vocational training and retraining, including apprenticeships, advanced vocational training and recurrent training;

    (d) The right to equal remuneration, including benefits, and to equal treatment in respect of work of equal value, as well as equality of treatment in the evaluation of the quality of work;

    (e) The right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age and other incapacity to work, as well as the right to paid leave;

    (f) The right to protection of health and to safety in working conditions, including the safeguarding of the function of reproduction.

    2. In order to prevent discrimination against women on the grounds of marriage or maternity and to ensure their effective right to work, States Parties shall take appropriate measures:

    (a) To prohibit, subject to the imposition of sanctions, dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy or of maternity leave and discrimination in dismissals on the basis of marital status;

    (b) To introduce maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss of former employment, seniority or social allowances;

    (c) To encourage the provision of the necessary supporting social services to enable parents to combine family obligations with work responsibilities and participation in public life, in particular through promoting the establishment and development of a network of childcare facilities;

    (d) To provide special protection to women during pregnancy in types of work proved to be harmful to them.

    3. Protective legislation relating to matters covered in this article shall be reviewed periodically in the light of scientific and technological knowledge and shall be revised, repealed or extended as necessary.

    The Chinese Government attaches great importance to the issue of the employment of women, and considers the solution of this problem to be an important element in the implementation of the basic State policy of gender equality. The following measures have been taken to guarantee women’s rights in the area of employment:

    Creating employment opportunities and increase job posts. In the process of adjusting the economic, industrial and ownership structures, the State has increased investment in basic industries and public infrastructure to stimulate domestic demand and drive economic growth; vigorously developed the tertiary industry sector, community services and tourism to increase job posts; and encouraged and supported the development of small and medium-sized enterprises and constructed and developed small and medium-sized towns to expand overall number of employment, increase the number of persons employed (including women), and expand the fields of employment available to women.

    The number of women working in both urban and rural areas has increased steadily since 1995. Though the number of female workers in State-owned enterprises in urban areas decreased, the overall number increased from 310 million to 330 million in 2000, with the overall percentage rising from 45.7 per cent to 46 per cent. Women’s fields of employment are constantly expanding, moving from traditional fields to emerging new industries. According to provisional statistics, the number and percentage of female workers in the following fields have been increasing: public utilities, telecommunication and postal services, financial and insurance services, real estate, tourism, broadcasting, film and television, public health, sports, and social welfare. At the same time, the number of women working in individual and private economic enterprises has increased by roughly 60 per cent, with the total nearing 10 million. At present, the number of small and medium-sized enterprises registered nationwide with industrial and commercial administration authorities has exceeded 8 million, accounting for 99 per cent of the total, providing about 75 per cent of the jobs in urban areas. The percentage of women working as managers or professional and technical personnel has increased. The percentage of women holding such positions in State-operated institutions and enterprises increased from 39.3 per cent in 1998 to 41 per cent in 2001. Many women have used the opportunities created by reform to assume management and decision-making positions. In 2000, the percentage of women in management positions at enterprises and institutions was 34.4 per cent. Survey results indicate that among the small and medium-sized enterprises registered nationwide, 20 per cent have women as chief managers; 63 per cent of the enterprises operated by female entrepreneurs employ more women than men. Female entrepreneurship has thus created conditions for female employment.

    Promoting the re-employment of laid-off women workers. From 1998 to 2001, with the constant pursuit of economic reform and the gradual establishment of the market-economy system, the number of unemployed and laid-off workers from State-owned enterprises has been increasing, with women accounting for about 45 per cent of the total. In response, policies have been adopted to promote the re-employment of laid-off workers, especially women workers, and reduce their concerns for the future. This approach is driven by economic growth, and supported with enabling policies, market services, Government regulations and social-security services.

    Taking the promotion of re-employment as a major strategy, the Government has established re-employment centres nationwide and guaranteed the basic subsistence of laid-off workers. Required funds are raised by a “three-three approach”, i.e. one third is raised through government budgetary allocation, one third is provided by the enterprises themselves, and one third is raised from the public. Through re-employment centres and employment agencies at all levels, a “one-three-one” initiative has been proposed, in which the laid-off workers on the roster of re-employment centres will, within half a year, receive vocational guidance at least once, be provided with employment or job information three times, and receive one free training session. The aim of the initiative is to help laid-off workers develop their abilities to compete in the job market and achieve self-improvement. From 1998 to 2001, labour authorities trained a total of 13 million laid-off workers, about half of whom were women. Public employment agencies nationwide provided job information to 15.06 million laid-off women workers; over 90 per cent of laid-off women workers have received vocational guidance.

    In the process of reform and development, the Government attaches great importance to the situation of women, especially the disparity in women’s development caused by the transition from a planned economy to a market economy. Special preferential policies have been adopted, to ensure that men and women enjoy equal opportunities and treatment in obtaining production resources, employment opportunities and public services. The Government focuses its re-employment efforts on laid-off women workers by adopting and implementing preferential policies to provide assistance in respect of employment. For example, units that employ laid-off women workers are entitled to tax reductions or exemptions and social-insurance subsidies; it is required that priority be given to recommending and employing laid-off women workers; and labour authorities provide laid-off women workers with free vocational-skills training and vocational briefings. The Government also provides small loans to laid-off workers who start their own businesses.

    The Government uses a multi-level, multi-channel approach to job creation, while paying special attention to developing tertiary-industry and community-service networks. For public-welfare jobs created with government funding, priority is given to workers who have difficulty in getting re-employed because of their age. In this way, some of the older laid-off women workers with limited education and skills can also find suitable employment. According to provisional statistics for the year 2000, 70 per cent of those who found re-employment in their communities were women.

    Policy guidance and coordination are being strengthened to ensure the right to work of people with disabilities. As reflected in a document entitled Opinions on Further Promoting Job and Employment Opportunities for Disabled People, which was approved for distribution by the State Council, the Government has decided to continue to support and maintain social-welfare production programmes which provide employment to large numbers of disabled people, and to implement the legal requirement of employing disabled individuals in proportion to the size of the employing unit concerned. At the same time, the Government will strongly support the individual self-employment and voluntary collective self-employment of disabled people, thereby creating a flexible policy environment for guaranteeing the right to work of disabled people. With the priority and support extended by the Government at all levels, social-welfare enterprises managed by civil-affairs authorities have witnessed healthy development. By the end of 2002, there were altogether 35,758 welfare enterprises nationwide, employing 683,000 disabled people, including large numbers of disabled women.

    At the same time, the Government is speeding up the reform of the social security system by refining its mechanisms and rules relating to the basic subsistence allowance for laid-off workers. In January 1999, the Government formulated unemployment insurance regulations which provide that laid-off employees of units participating in insurance scheme can receive unemployment compensation payments and medical subsidies. These regulations apply to all types of enterprises, reflecting the broad-based nature of the system. By the end of 2001, 103.55 million workers nationwide were participating in basic unemployment insurance, 108.02 million were participating in basic pension insurance, and almost 80 million were participating in basic medical insurance.

    Strengthening the labour monitoring system to safeguard women workers’ rights and interests and implement special labour-safety measures. In October 2001, the standing committee of the Ninth National People’s Congress considered and adopted the Decision on Revising the Trade Union Law of the People’s Republic of China. The Decision provides for the establishment of women workers’ committees within trade unions, and for punishing violations of the rights and interests of women workers and minors. It also provides that, in cases of violations of the special interests of female workers and minors, trade unions should negotiate on behalf of workers with the enterprises or institutions concerned and request that they take corrective measures. The enterprises or institutions should duly investigate and deal with the alleged violations and provide responses to the unions. If the enterprises or institutions refuse to take corrective action, the unions can refer the case to local courts.

    In order to strengthen the labour monitoring system, a total of 3,188 labour protection and monitoring offices have been established nationwide, with over 40,000 monitors. Through the implementation of the Labour Law and the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, a system for establishing and standardizing labour contracts and collective contracts is being promoted. Management of labour contracts is enhanced requiring full consideration of female workers’ special needs and that provisions concerning women’s rights and interests are clearly specified in labour contracts signed between employers and workers. When examining and certifying such contracts, labour authorities should ensure that provisions aimed at safeguarding women workers’ rights and interests are included. At the same time, more emphasis is being placed on reforming the wage distribution system within enterprises, so that wage levels are linked to positions held and contributions made, and the principle of equal pay for equal work is applied to both men and women. The Government attaches great importance to the implementation of relevant laws and labour protection regulations by the three types of enterprises established with foreign investment within special economic zones. By the end of 2001, 95 per cent of State-owned and collective enterprises and enterprises established with foreign investment operated under labour contracts, and workers covered by collective contracts numbered over 50 million. Labour-monitoring authorities have also strengthened routine monitoring activities, focusing on working hours, leave systems, special protections for women and the implementation of the principle of equal pay for equal work. Corrective action are taken immediately if any problems are discovered. For example, the labour protection and monitoring authority of the Guangxi Zhuang Nationality Autonomous Region has investigated 3,443 cases involving women workers, and recovered back pay for women workers totalling 3.65 million yuan renminbi. The authority has also accepted 453 labour-dispute cases involving women workers, with a resolution rate of 100 per cent.

    Promoting the establishment of a maternity insurance system. In 1997, the State adopted a maternity insurance plan, to integrate childbirth into the overall planning for the social reproduction. The plan has played a positive role in promoting equal competition among enterprises, improving women’s employment environment and safeguarding women workers’ basic rights and interests during childbirth. A nationwide campaign is being carried out to promote and guide local efforts in this regard, and steps taken include designing a special web page for the maternity insurance scheme, so that relevant national and local policies and regulations and related information can be posted on the Internet. By the end of 2001, over half of the cities nationwide had adopted the scheme, under which workers’ maternity expenses are paid by insurance funds collected through social pools. The number of participating workers reached almost 34.55 million, and 14 provinces, regions and municipalities have developed local laws and regulations on maternity insurance.

    Mobilizing non-governmental organizations and social forces, creating job opportunities and safeguarding the rights and interests of women workers. The Chinese Government respects the rights of trade unions enshrined in the Constitution and other laws, and actively supports trade unions in their work to safeguard workers’ rights in accordance with law. The All-China Federation of Trade Unions has undertaken a series of efforts aimed at providing vocational training to improve the professional and technical skills of women workers, promoting the active participation of the representatives of women workers in enterprises’ decision-making and management, and monitoring and safeguarding the rights and interests of women workers. Trade unions have taken vocational training as part of their regular work. According to a survey undertaken in 27 provinces in 1999, 10.72 million female workers have participated in various types of vocational training, accounting for about 60 per cent of the total number of participants. Taking the dissemination of knowledge of the law and the monitoring of its enforcement as a basic task, trade unions strive to establish and improve their working methods and assist in setting up legal-assistance networks. With the support of the Government and the facilitation of trade unions, a system of consultation on an equal footing for collective contracts has come into wider use. At present, over 80 per cent of the enterprises nationwide have established systems of workers’ representatives conferences, and 80 per cent of the leaders of grass-roots trade unions’ women workers’ committees are members of labour-dispute reconciliation committees. Ninety-two per cent of grass-roots trade unions’ women workers’ committees have participated in collective consultation and bargaining. All of this has resulted in the institutionalization of labour protection for female workers and giving it a foundation in law. Trade unions also investigate problems and oversee their resolution. From 1995 to 2000, 67,000 trade union organizations participated in the formulation of policies on the placement of laid-off women workers. Over 200,000 training courses were held, providing training to almost 1.85 million women workers. Trade unions also monitored and assisted with the placement of 1.09 million laid-off women workers.

    Since 1996, through such projects as the Women Entrepreneurship Initiative, the Women Helping the Poor Initiative and Women’s Community Service Project, the All-China Women’s Federation has been developing community services, providing convenience to the public and to help the re-employment of laid-off women workers. Communities, families and the public at large all benefited from these services. For example, Liaoning Province has established 4,500 community-based integrated service centres, and has helped nearly 200,000 laid-off workers obtain re-employment. The All-China Women’s Federation has established re-employment information and guidance centres for women in 31 large and medium-sized cities. These centres collect information on labour markets, keep abreast of re-employment dynamics, provide employment advice and guidance, and establish employment files. Through a variety of training camps for women, the Federation has also provided 5 million laid-off women workers with vocational training geared to the needs of the labour market. At the same time, it actively promotes the creation of employment opportunities by encouraging and helping women to organize themselves, start self-employment and set up small and medium-sized enterprises. Efforts have also been made to raise funds from various sources to provide seed money for poor women to start their own businesses. For example, the women’s federations in Tianjin City, Yunnan Province, Guangxi Autonomous Region and Sichuan Province have raised funds to provide microcredit for re-employment projects in urban areas. In the past few years, women’s federations at all levels have directly assisted 2.06 million laid-off women workers find re-employment.

    In recent years, the question of women and employment has become a topic of major concern. In September 2000, a New Century Career Women’s Development Forum was held in Beijing to explore the development prospects of career women. It called upon society to create a policy and public-opinion environment favourable to the equal competition of men and women. In December 2002, the All-China Women’s Federation and Chinese Women’s Research Association co-hosted a forum on Chinese women’s employment. Among the more than 300 participants in the Forum were experts and representatives from Central Policy Research Office, the National Development and Planning Commission, the Ministry of Personnel, the Ministry of Labour and Social Security Affairs, the People’s Bank of China, women’s organizations, social-sciences research institutions, institutions of higher learning and the International Labour Organization. The Forum focused on ways to improve labour market policies in order to provide equal opportunity to both men and women while promoting the employment of women.

    The Chinese Government understands that obstacles still exist in promoting the employment of women and safeguarding women workers’ rights in the area of work and employment. China is a big country in terms of labour resources. Every year, the total number of new entrants to the labour market in urban areas and surplus labourers in rural areas is over 10 million, while millions of others are laid off in the process of enterprise reform. While the industrial structure is undergoing continuous readjustment and employment channels are expanded, the pressure from the labour and employment sector remains huge. The fact that the economically active population has been outgrowing economic development has led to fierce competition in the labour market, and as a result, gender discrimination exists in the employment practices of some departments and enterprises. Moreover, national policies on re-employment have not been fully implemented in some areas. Some laid-off women workers do not possess necessary work skills or have not received the training they need, making it difficult for them to get re-employed. Some private enterprises, village or township-operated enterprises and foreign-capital enterprises have not signed contracts with their women workers and have not implemented the required labour-safety measures; the working conditions of such enterprises are often poor, and violations of women workers’ rights and interests occur. The Chinese Government attaches great importance to resolving these problems, and has adopted long-term strategies for continuous economic development, improving the environment for entrepreneurship, and generating employment opportunities and job positions through multiple channels. The Government is also comprehensively implementing the relevant laws, regulations and policies, so as to gradually overcome these obstacles in an active and pragmatic manner.

    Article 12

    1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of health care in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, access to health-care services, including those related to family planning.

    2. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph I of this article, States Parties shall ensure to women appropriate services in connection with pregnancy, confinement and the post-natal period, granting free services where necessary, as well as adequate nutrition during pregnancy and lactation.

    The Chinese Government, taking as a major strategy the implementation of the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women and the Programme for the Development of Chinese Children, has adopted the principle of Children First and Mothers Safe, given priority to rural areas in its efforts to ensure maternal and infant health, and increased the corresponding financial input. In April 2001, the State Council promulgated implementing methods for the Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care of the People’s Republic of China, which further specifies the various services that medical and health-care agencies are required to provide in this regard, i.e., the dissemination of awareness regarding good maternal and infant health-care practices and related education and consultation services; premarital medical examinations, prenatal diagnoses and hereditary-diseases diagnoses; delivery procedures; medically necessary birth control procedures; neonatal screening; and other reproductive health services relating to fertility, birth control and sterility.

    Major measures taken to improve the health of women include:

    Stepping up legislative work regarding health care and strengthening law-enforcement efforts, in order to improve and implement laws, regulations and departmental policies that focus on women’s health. In 2001, the Ministry of Health building on a prior national premarital health survey, amended the 1997 Premarital Health Care Guidelines. The amended Guidelines, issued in June 2002, require relevant institutions to strengthen supervision of premarital health care, improve the quality of premarital medical examinations, and to give services a more human face, so as to provide better premarital health-care services, including premarital medical examinations, health guidance and health consultation. Emphasis is given to the promotion of premarital health care, especially premarital medical check-ups in rural areas, and the strengthening of marriage- and childbirth-related health guidance. In order to protect the health of mothers and infants, improve the constitutions of newborns, ensure the safe and effective use of prenatal diagnosis technology, and standardize the supervision and management of such technology, China has, on the basis of the Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care and its implementing methods, formulated the Methods of Management of Prenatal Diagnosis Technology, which became effective on 1 May 2003. This development marks the beginning of the legal regulation of prenatal diagnosis services in China, and ensures that safe and effective services will be provided to pregnant women. At the same time, on the basis of the promulgation and implementation of the implementing methods for the Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care and in accordance with the spirit of the relevant official documents prepared by the Ministry of Health and transmitted by the General Office of the State Council regarding the improvement of the constitutions of newborns, the Ministry and the China Disabled Persons’ Federation jointly published, in June 2002, the Plan of Action to Improve the Constitutions of Newborns and Reduce Birth Defects and Disabilities. The Plan of Action has established a goal of reducing birth defects by 2010 in China, laid down implementing principles and operational measures in this regard, and has strengthened various health-care measures to that end. Work has also continued on the implementation of the Opinions on the Further Strengthening of Efforts to Eliminate Iodine Deficiency Disorders. With the exception of those living in iodine-rich areas, the population is now taking qualified iodized-salt supplements, and the Guidelines on Oral Iodized Oil Capsules are strictly observed in iodine-deficient areas. Measures have been taken to ensure that newly wedded couples, pregnant women, lactating mothers and 0 to 2-year-old infants are all monitored for their iodine levels and provided with appropriate iodine supplements as needed. Efforts have been made to improve the management of health care during pregnancy and the perinatal period, making nutritional guidance part of the health-care services for new and expectant mothers, and to provide them with guidance regarding the use of nutritional supplements. Additionally, work has been done to enhance the implementation of the Regulations on Labour Protection for Female Workers and Staff, further strengthening the protection of women workers and women in rural areas during pregnancy and striving to prevent them from working in dangerous and hazardous environments. Better guidance is being provided regarding pregnancy, and stricter rules are being observed regarding the use of medications during pregnancy, and newlyweds and soon-to-be-married couples are educated and advised to refrain from smoking, drinking or using drugs.

    Increasing inputs for the construction of a rural health-care services network. From 1995 to 2000, 80 per cent of village- and township clinics, disease-prevention stations and maternal and infant health-care stations were renovated, with 4.2 billion yuan renminbi from the Central Government and more than 20 billion yuan renminbi in supporting funds from local governments, creating the basic structure for a rural health-care services network. By 2000, over 3,000 maternal and infant health-care institutions had been established in rural areas. From 2000 to 2001, the Central Government and local governments appropriated a total of 200 million yuan renminbi for the implementation of a project aimed at reducing the incidence of maternal mortality and of tetanus in newborns in 12 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities, in an effort to strengthen the building of obstetrics departments in rural hospitals and the training of local health and medical workers, as well as to assist the dissemination of knowledge concerning maternal and infant health. As a result, maternal mortality in those areas dropped from 129.47 per 100,000 to 92.19 per 100,000 within two years. At present, as many as 72.9 per cent of pregnant women give birth in hospital, an increase of nearly 15 percentage points compared with 1995 due in part to the improvement of maternal health-care services and a comprehensive campaign to promote perinatal health care by means of individual pregnancy health-care records, prenatal check-ups, special management for high-risk pregnant women or mothers, in-hospital births and post-natal visits. Also, 96.6 per cent of out-of-hospital births are now delivered by means of disinfected midwifery, an increase of 9 per cent compared with 1995. Maternal mortality rates nationwide dropped from 63.6 per 100,000 in 1997 to 53 per 100,000 in 2000.

    Carrying out efforts to detect and treat common diseases among women nationwide. The prevention and treatment of women’s health problems has been identified as an ongoing item on the women’s-health agenda at the local level. In the campaign to detect and treat cervical cancer, for example, efforts to ensure the early detection and treatment of the disease are leading to a gradual decrease of its rates of morbidity across the country. In 2001, the incidence of two sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), gonorrhoea and genital warts (80.48 per 100,000 and 63.61 per 100,000 respectively), dropped dramatically as compared with 2000. At the same time, many women’s health-care promotion and education events have been organized, relying on township and village health-care networks to educate rural women about health care, and priority is given to treating diseases which seriously affect the health of rural women. As a result, the incidence of urinary incontinence and uterine prolapse of the second degree or higher gradually decreased from 1996 to 2001.

    Vigorously promoting efforts to strengthen the prevention of STDs and AIDS. From 1985 to the end of 2001, there were a total of 30,736 cases of HIV infection in China. Transmission was mainly through blood, with those infected through intravenous drug use accounting for 68.0 per cent, those infected in the process of blood (plasma) collection accounting for 9.7 per cent; those infected in the process of blood transfusion and injection of blood products accounting for 1.5 per cent; and those infected through sexual contact accounting for 7.2 per cent. Among the infected, 80.7 per cent were identified as men, 18.0 per cent as women and the remaining 1.3 per cent unknown. In recent years, HIV/AIDS has been spreading rapidly in China. It is estimated that the HIV-infected population totalled nearly 1 million by the end of June 2002. The Chinese Government attaches great importance to the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS, and the State Council has established a mechanism for holding meetings on the coordination of HIV/AIDS prevention efforts. In 1998, the State Council promulgated China’s Medium and Long Term Plan for HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control (1998-2010), which calls on the entire society to participate and strengthen efforts taken in this regard. The Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010) and the Programme for the Development of Chinese Children (2001-2010), both promulgated in 2001, have established goals and measures to the same end. In order to effectively reduce the incidence of HIV/AIDS and STDs, in May 2001 the State Council issued China’s Action Plan for Reducing and Preventing the Spread of HIV/AIDS (2001-2005), requiring Governments at all levels to formulate their own implementation programmes based on the Plan, clearly define responsibilities and functions, strengthen guidance and oversight, and ensure the realization of all goals in this prevention effort. Since 2001, the Central Government has set aside 100 million yuan renminbi each year for the prevention of HIV/AIDS; at the same time, Government bond funds in the amount of 1.25 billion yuan renminbi have been allocated for the construction or remodelling of 459 blood-collecting stations and blood banks, with a view to ensuring the safety of blood transfusion. Governments at all levels have attached special importance to raising the awareness of society as a whole about the prevention of HIV/AIDS and STDs, with a particular emphasis on educating the migrant population, women and young people about self-protection and personal behaviour. Special attention is devoted to women and children, with an extensive effort to disseminate knowledge about mother-to-infant transmission of HIV/AIDS. At the same time, full play is given to the role of NGOs in addressing the problems facing high-risk groups; associations for STD and HIVAIDS prevention and control, youth federations, women’s federations, trade unions and the Red Cross Societies of China have all been actively involved in efforts to curb and prevent HIV/AIDS; and exchanges and cooperation with international organizations have also been conducted.

    Widely publicizing family planning and providing greater access to family-planning services. In December 2001, China promulgated the Law on Population and Family Planning of the People’s Republic of China, to provide a legal basis for the administration of family planning. The Law adopts an integrated approach, linking China’s population challenge with the need for economic development, poverty elimination, environmental protection, the advancement of women and the improvement of the social-security system in order to achieve sustainable development. The Law embodies the connection between citizen’s rights and obligations in family planning. As stated in Article 17 of the law, “Citizens have the right to reproduce as well as the obligations to practice family planning according to law. Husbands and wives bear joint responsibility for family planning.” Article 3 states, “Population and family planning programmes shall be linked with programmes that expand women’s educational and employment opportunities, enhance their health, and elevate their status.”

    In order to protect the reproductive health of women, Article 21 of the same Law stipulates, “Couples of reproductive age who practise family planning shall enjoy, free of charge, the technical services that the State stipulates as basic items.” Article 26 states, “In accordance with applicable State regulations, women shall enjoy special labour protections and be entitled to assistance and compensation during the period of pregnancy, delivery, and breastfeeding.” Article 30 states, “The State shall establish premarital health-care and maternal health-care systems to prevent or reduce the incidence of birth defects and improve the health of newborns.” Article 31 states, “People’s Governments at all levels shall take measures to guarantee citizens’ access to family-planning technical services in order to enhance their reproductive health.”

    In order to implement the principle of gender equality and safeguard the rights of women and infant girls, Article 22 of the Law stipulates, “Discrimination against and mistreatment of women who give birth to female children or who suffer from infertility are prohibited. Discrimination against, mistreatment, and abandonment of female infants are prohibited.” Article 35 further states, “Use of ultrasonography or other techniques to identify foetal gender for non-medical purposes is strictly prohibited. Sex-selective pregnancy termination for non-medical purposes is strictly prohibited.” The Adoption Law of the People’s Republic of China, as amended in November 1998, stipulates in its Article 31 that “Whoever abandons an infant shall be fined by a public security organ; if the act constitutes a crime, the offender shall be investigated for criminal responsibility in accordance with law.”

    The Law on Population and Family Planning also includes provisions on social security. Article 24 states, “To facilitate family planning programmes, the State shall establish and improve social-security systems covering basic old-age insurance, basic medical insurance, childbirth insurance, and welfare benefits. In rural areas where conditions permit, various types of old-age support schemes may be adopted following the principle of Government guidance with the voluntary participation of the rural people.”

    In pursuing its family-planning policy, China has always adhered to the principle of Government guidance with the voluntary participation of the people. Various forms of promotional and educational efforts have been made, including through the mass media. Since 1998, for example, a nationwide campaign has been under way to promote new concepts regarding marriage and childbearing in all households, such as family planning, gender equality, no preference for boys over girls, and girls’ ability to carry on the family line and eliminate the traditional view of sons as being more advantageous or better than daughters, in an effort to persuade couples of childbearing age to practise family planning voluntarily. Governments at all levels provide training to local family-planning officials, enabling them to achieve a better understanding and grasp of the policies, carry out enforcement efforts in a proper and civil manner, and improve the quality of services by using modern managerial skills and technologies. Actions which violate the legitimate rights and interests of citizens in some areas are promptly stopped and violators are severely reprimanded, punished or even subjected to legal prosecution, depending on the seriousness of the offence.

    In June 2001, the State Council promulgated the Regulations on the Administration of Family Planning Technical Services, which stipulates that citizens have the right to make informed choices concerning contraceptive methods. The Government ensures that citizens have the right to access suitable family-planning technical services and emphasizes that birth-control procedures can only be employed “with prior consent of the recipient of the procedure and the recipient’s safety must be ensured.” By the end of 2001, over 40,000 family-planning technical service units had been established across the country, among which were 252 prefecture-level family-planning guidance centres, 2,773 county-level family-planning service centres, and 36,707 township-level service points, staffed with a total full-time force of more than 150,000 technical personnel. Over 17,000 health clinics across the country also have set up family-planning sections, representing a total force of 280,000 technical personnel. There are altogether 60,000 medical and heath-care institutions that provide family-planning services, forming a network to provide relevant services to people of childbearing age, including reproductive health awareness, education, counselling, guidance and follow-up visits, as well as guidance, consulting and clinical services with regard to contraceptive services, family-planning-related operations, the detection and treatment of women’s diseases and the treatment of infertility. Since 1995, the State Family Planning Commission has launched a project for the promotion of high-quality reproductive health in more than 800 counties across the country, representing one third of the total number of counties. The project emphasizes the use of contraception, observes the principle of free choice and safety in induced abortions, opposes the use of forced induced abortions, prohibits illegal induced abortions and the sex-specific termination of pregnancy while stressing the importance of the informed choice of contraceptive methods. Advice is also provided on healthy childbearing and child-rearing, screening of hereditary diseases is conducted, and a “Birth Defects Intervention Project” has been launched.

    In its efforts to promote the use of contraceptive methods in recent years, the Government has sought, in the context of special educational programmes for newlywed couples, to formulate qualifications for so-called “Model Families of Five Virtues” and to prevent STDs and HIV/AIDS, to encourage men as well as women to use contraceptives, to eliminate their prejudices regarding vasectomies and condoms, and to encourage wives and husbands to share decisions on the use of contraceptive methods.

    In order to address the disproportionately high ration of males to females at birth, China has, in recent years, widely promoted gender equality in both cities and rural areas, in an effort to eliminate stereotypes valuing men over women, encourage people to change their views concerning childbearing, and reduce the psychological and social pressure on families without sons. At the same time, vigorous efforts have been made to implement laws and regulations that enhance gender equality. For example, the newly amended Marriage Law, the Law on Population and Family Planning, the Rural Land Contracting Law and the relevant provisions of the State Council in this regard all have provisions for the protection of women’s rights and interests. They emphasize that the drowning, abandonment and mistreatment of female infants is strictly prohibited, laws and policies relating to women’s land rights are to be implemented effectively, and crimes involving the drowning and abandonment of female infants are to be dealt with forcefully. In rural areas, while families should still bear the main responsibility for taking care of their elderly members, efforts are also being made to explore other forms of security and protection for senior citizens in keeping with the economic conditions of the locality. For example, the “Five Basics” (clothing, food, shelter, health care and assistance) are provided to childless old people who are unable to work. Men are encouraged to stay, after marriage, with the wife’s family if that family has no male heirs; and effective preferential policies and measures have been put in place for such families regarding the allocation of farmland and housing sites, so as to address the practical difficulties such families may experience. At the same time, the administration of birth registration as it applies to the migrant population has been strengthened, so as to reduce the underreporting of female newborns. In the fifth national population census conducted in November 2000, previously unregistered children were recorded regardless of sex.

    The Chinese Government has also noted that in many rural areas, especially those with high rates of poverty, there remains a serious lack of health-care facilities and medical personnel, and huge inputs are needed to build the infrastructure required; this is a situation that is not easily changed in a short time. In the mountainous areas, the hinterlands and areas of high poverty, the lack of health knowledge and inaccessibility in terms of transportation result in relatively low rates of in-hospital births (45-65 per cent), with comparatively high rates of maternal and infant mortality as a consequence. The incidence of HIV/AICS is also rising rapidly in China. There are still some people who cling to the traditional view of sons as being more advantageous or better than daughters, especially in areas of high poverty. Owing to the low level of productivity and the lack of information in those areas, changing such attitudes will take some time. With these obstacles in mind, the Government has formulated policies to increase inputs into rural health care, strengthen the training of rural health-care personnel, and promote education efforts regarding health and population issues. The efforts of all sectors of society will be needed in working towards a solution to these issues step by step.

    Article 13

    States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in other areas of economic and social life in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights, in particular:

    (a) The right to family benefits;

    (b) The right to bank loans, mortgages and other forms of financial credit;

    (c) The right to participate in recreational activities, sports and all aspects of cultural life.

    Between 1995 and 2000, the State established a system to guarantee urban residents’ minimum standard of living by providing regular minimum subsistence allowances for extremely poor families. By 2001, a total of 11.42 million urban residents had received such relief. In recent years, the Ministry of Civil Affairs adjusted these allowances in light of the changes in the socio-economic situation, local standards of living and consumer price levels. Extremely poor families with per-capita incomes below the guaranteed minimum living standards can apply for the allowance in their locality; eligible applicants will receive the minimum subsistence allowance from their local civil affairs authorities. All who need assistance receive it.

    The amended Marriage Law clarifies the meaning of community property and adds definitions for separate property and contracted property. Those amendments provided a legal basis for the financial independence of husband and wife as well as for the protection of the interests of women and children in cases of divorce. Article 18 of the amended Marriage Law stipulates, “Any of the following items shall be husband’s or wife’s separate property: (1) prenuptial property in his or her separate possession; (2) expenses such as medical costs and costs of living of the disabled given to one party for his or her bodily affliction; (3) the property going only to husband or wife, as specified in a will or a gift contract; (4) one party’s private articles for daily use; and (5) any other items of property which shall be in his or her separate possession.” In addition, the new provision on contracted property is stipulated in Article 19: “So far as the property acquired during the period in which they are under contract of marriage and the prenuptial property are concerned, husband and wife may agree as to whether they should be in the separate possession, joint possession or partly separate possession and partly joint possession. The agreement reached between the husband and wife on the property acquired during the period in which they are under contract of marriage and on the prenuptial property is binding on both parties.”

    Chinese laws contain no discriminatory restrictions with regard to women’s rights to secure loans, mortgages and other forms of credit. Since 1996, in order to help laid-off urban workers to find new jobs and the rural poor to emerge from poverty, the State has budgeted special funds to support re-employment and poverty-alleviation. Many localities provide low-interest or preferential loans geared toward helping laid-off urban women workers find new jobs, and provide preferential or small loans to assist impoverished rural women. These loans are only available to women and are generally underwritten by local women’s federations, which also coordinate with pertinent sectors to provide on-the-job training and other relevant services. In recent years, an extensive campaign has been launched in rural areas across the country to help women in poverty with small loans. For example, from 1997 to 2001, Yunnan Province utilized 1.37 billion yuan renminbi of State funds, poverty-alleviation funds, bank credit, and domestic and foreign aid to provide micro-credit to 115 counties and 890 towns, benefiting 204,649 groups and 987,500 farm households. Of these, 155,000 households received loans through women’s federations, and the loan return rates in all cases were above 95 per cent. As another example, the Municipal Government of Tianjin, in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme and the Tianjin Women’s Union, initiated a small-loan programme to assist laid-off women workers to become self-employed. That programme introduced the concept of “enterprise incubator” to the realm of re-employment opportunities, turning the emphasis from placing women in the labour market to guiding them to start their own enterprises. Over the past three years, the programme provided 1,947 laid-off women workers with 84.72 million yuan renminbi of small loans, helping over 4,000 laid-off women get re-employed. The loan return rate was 99 per cent. Over 90 per cent of rural credit cooperatives now offer small-loan services, benefiting nearly 200 million farmers.

    While promoting economic development, the Chinese Government has also increased input into such undertakings as radio and television broadcasting, cultural activities and sports. Local arts exhibition halls, recreational centres, and small- and medium-sized sports facilities have been built in many rural and urban areas. During the period from 1990 to 2000, a project was implemented to bring radio and television broadcasts to every village. By 2000, radio and television coverage reached 92.1 per cent and 93.4 per cent of the national population respectively. Most villages maintained recreational facilities and women’s activity rooms to facilitate the participation of a large number of women in cultural and athletic activities. With the promotion of gender equality as a basic State policy and the increased participation of women in political, economic, cultural and social development, women became more aware of the need to participate and be independent, and have created more space for self-development. As indicated by a sample survey of Chinese women’s social status conducted in 2000, women are expanding their sphere of activities and social interaction; a majority of them enjoy autonomy in deciding their own affairs; and their modes of recreation are becoming more diverse. Specifically, 14.2 per cent of respondents made a point of doing physical exercise; 15.7 per cent of urban women and 6.3 per cent of rural women participated in community recreational and sports activities; and 16.1 per cent of urban women and 3.1 per cent of rural women took part in trips or outings. Five per cent of urban women and 0.5 per cent of rural women began using the Internet to obtain information, and 1.2 per cent of the entire female population are urban women who use the Internet on a daily basis.

    The Chinese Government attaches great importance to the development of women’s athletics and the improvement of their physical conditions. By adopting appropriate laws and policies, it seeks to promote the use of scientific, enlightened and healthy methods for women to participate in physical fitness activities, enrich women’s cultural and athletic activities, and create a facilitating environment for women’s physical activities. The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Physical Culture and Sports and National Programme for Physical Fitness explicitly provide for the support and encouragement of extensive popular participation, including by women, in sports activities. The Statute of the Chinese Olympic Committee adopted in 2001 includes an article on the active promotion and development of women’s sports. In 2001, the General Administration of Sport and the All-China Women’s Federation jointly organized an event called “Physical fitness for a hundred million women”. Twenty-six provinces and municipalities sent delegations to participate in the event, generating a positive impact throughout the nation. Many provinces and municipalities held women’s fitness contests and sports meets to build momentum for a sustained and nationwide drive for women’s physical fitness. In recent years, with the encouragement of the Government and active support throughout society, women’s athletics have been thriving in China with more and more Chinese women participating in fitness activities. According to a survey in 2001 on the status of mass sports in China, women athletes accounted for 43.4 per cent of the total athlete population and 15.8 per cent of the total female population, an increase of 2.2 per cent compared with 1996.

    Chinese women’s performance in competitive sports has been steadily improving. At the 1998 Nagano Winter Olympics, the 2000 Sydney Olympics, the 2002 Salt Lake City Winter Olympics, and the 2002 Asian Games, women athletes accounted for 73 per cent, 66 per cent, 69 per cent, and 45 per cent of the respective Chinese national teams, exceeding the international average for female participation in such events (35 per cent-40 per cent). At the 2000 Olympic Games and the 2002 Asian Games, Chinese women athletes won respectively 59 per cent and 56 per cent of total gold medals. Data show that from the 23rd to the 27th Olympics, Chinese athletes won a total of 80 gold medals, among which 56.9 per cent were won by women athletes. From 1998 to 2002, Chinese athletes who participated in major international competitions won 485 world championships. Among them were 289 women champions, accounting for 59.5 per cent. During the same period, Chinese athletes set 193 world records with 176, or 91 per cent, set by women athletes. In 2002, 17 individuals and 5 teams set world records 33 times in 29 events; among them, 14 women athletes and 4 women’s teams set world records 29 times in 25 events.

    The Chinese Government makes great efforts to nurture female administrators in sports. There are 1,550 female cadres in the General Administration of Sport, accounting for 37.8 per cent of the total number of cadres there; among them, 627, or 34.4 per cent, are in administrative posts, and 923, or 43.1 per cent, are in specialized technical posts. Twenty-five of the women officials are at the divisional or bureau level, accounting for 13 per cent of the cadres at that level. There are 50 women serving in various international sports organizations, accounting for about 21.9 per cent of the total Chinese staff in those organizations. As of the end of 2002, female social sports counsellors made up 41.7 per cent of the national total.

    Article 14

    1. States Parties shall take into account the particular problems faced by rural women and the significant roles which rural women play in the economic survival of their families, including their work in the non-monetized sectors of the economy, and shall take all appropriate measures to ensure the application of the provisions of the present Convention to women in rural areas.

    2. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular, shall ensure to such women the right:

    (a) To participate in the elaboration and implementation of development planning at all levels;

    (b) To have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counselling and services in family planning;

    (c) To benefit directly from social security programmes;

    (d) To obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating to functional literacy, as well as, inter alia, the benefit of all community and extension services, in order to increase their technical proficiency;

    (e) To organize self-help groups and cooperatives in order to obtain equal access to economic opportunities through employment or self employment;

    (f) To participate in all community activities;

    (g) To have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology and equal treatment in land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes;

    (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications.

    After two decades of reform and opening-up, the agricultural sector and the rural economy in China have achieved historic progress. The economic structure has been continuously optimized; overall production capacity has been improved; agricultural science and technology have realized historic advances; the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors have achieved coordinated development; and the rural labour force has undergone significant changes. During the period from 1998 to 2001, the percentage of rural labour in the nation’s total workforce decreased from 46.2 per cent to 43.9 per cent and the proportion of the workforce in the non-agricultural sector increased rapidly. The number of employees in rural industrial enterprises accounted for 15.5 per cent of total rural labour force. Value added by rural enterprises accounted for nearly one third of China’s Gross Domestic Product. According to provisional statistics, women accounted for over 65 per cent of the workforce engaged in farming, aquaculture, and agricultural-products processing, as well as various types of agricultural enterprises, over 30 per cent of the workforce of rural enterprises and over 60 per cent of the workforce in rural enterprises in China’s eastern region, where the economy has been developing more quickly. Rural women have become the major force in rural economic construction and social development. Through their broad participation in economic and social development, women’s knowledge of culture and science has improved, along with their income and economic and social status have increased, and their mental attitude has changed significantly.

    From 1999 to 2000, a new round of land contracting was launched in China’s rural areas based on the demographic changes over the previous two decades. In response to the problem of discrimination against women that has occurred in some areas during this new round of land contracting, the State Council issued a circular concerning effective safeguards for rural women’s rights and interests in land contracting, which requires county Governments to supervise land contracting transactions and immediately remedy any violations of women’s rights and interests in land contracting. In strict compliance with Article 30 of the Law on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women, a woman’s responsibility fields, fields for growing grain rations and land for housing construction shall remain under protection after she gets married or divorced. In August 2002, the National People’s Congress promulgated the Rural Land Contracting Law, which explicitly stipulates that women shall enjoy the same rights as men in land contracting and management, and that land contracting issues for married, divorced and widowed women shall be properly addressed. Any contract issuer who deprives women of their legal rights with regard to land contracting and management or violate such rights shall bear civil liability for cessation of infringements, restitution, rehabilitation, removal of obstacles, elimination of dangers and compensation for losses. The provisions of this Law provide a concrete legal basis for rectifying violations of women’s rights and interests in land contracting.

    In order to adapt to economic globalization and meet the need for agricultural development resulting from China’s accession to the World Trade Organization, the State has formulated a strategy to accelerate the structural adjustment of agriculture and the rural economy, vigorously carry out the industrialization of agricultural production, and actively promote the transition from traditional to modern methods of agriculture. On this basis and in conjunction with the implementation of the Programme for the Development of Chinese Women (2001-2010), the Government has taken the following measures in order to facilitate rural women in facing new challenges:

    Assigning first priority to the improvement of rural women’s cultural and scientific knowledge. Rooted in the concept of developing agriculture through science and education, a project to organize classes for farmers on modern agricultural knowledge and techniques is being implemented through grass-roots centres (institutes) for promoting agricultural technologies. The Ministry of Agriculture, working with the Ministry of Finance and the All-China Youth Federation, is implementing a scientific training project to encourage young farmers to learn and apply science. More than 10 Government ministries, including the Ministry of Agriculture, are also collaborating with the All-China Women’s Federation on a long-term basis in conducting a learning campaign for rural women, in which over 120 million rural women have participated in cultural and practical technology training. During the past two years, building upon this learning campaign, another project has been initiated that involves sending experts and technical personnel to rural areas to promote agricultural technologies. The Government is also strengthening the training of rural women in practical technologies through rural broadcast schools and correspondence schools. These schools enrol women from poor areas free of charge and prepare teaching materials for rural women and ethnic minorities. In 1999, in order to more effectively implement the strategy of developing agriculture through science and technology, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the State Forestry Administration and the Poverty Alleviation Office of the State Council, in cooperation with All-China Women’s Federation and China Association for Science and Technology, conducted a project to foster women’s prosperity through science and technology, designed to strengthen the provision of science and technology training and production services for rural women. At present, three major networks for science and technology training, service and demonstration have been formed in rural areas. The country has set up a total of 24,000 science and technology guidance centres for women at various levels, over 60,000 schools for rural women below the county level, 86,000 professional technology associations and professional science organizations with women as primary participants, and over 10 million model households for science and technology application. Since 1999, 5.37 million women have become literate, 63 million women have participated in training for new technologies (of whom 650,000 have obtained the title of agricultural technician), and 1,625,000 women have obtained a certificate of achievement in agricultural technology. Such training has improved the abilities and technological levels of rural women and promoted the development of the rural economy.

    Facilitating the orderly transfer of surplus rural labour into non-agricultural sectors. Through major efforts to develop rural enterprises, promote the industrialization of agricultural production, and develop local economies based on local advantages, the Government is encouraging rural women to move into secondary and tertiary industries; at the same time, in conjunction with the building of small and medium-sized cities, the Government strives to organize the transfer of labour in a planned manner, in order to expand employment channels for rural women. During the past three years, local women’s federations alone have assisted 12 million rural women to transfer to non-agricultural sectors in a well-planned way.

    Protecting the legitimate rights and interests of women employees of rural enterprises. In 2001, there were 6.72 million rural industrial enterprises in China, accounting for 99 per cent of the country’s total. In recent years, the Ministry of Agriculture has attached great importance to improving the rules and regulations governing rural enterprises, and has promulgated among others, regulations on labour administration in rural enterprises, administrative methods for labour health-care services in rural enterprises and an opinion on strengthening the administration of occupational health-care services in rural enterprises. These rules and regulations include strict provisions for monitoring the employment of and the health safeguards for women and minors, and prohibit enterprises from assigning women workers to work in underground mines, to any work involving a Grade IV level of physical intensity, or other work prohibited by law. Enterprises shall not terminate labour contracts with women employees during pregnancy, the prenatal period or while nursing. Trade unions or women’s organizations have also been established in most rural enterprises to help monitor the implementation of relevant laws and regulations. These measures are proving effective in curbing violations of women employees’ rights and interests.

    Improving the living environment for rural women. Since the 1990s, the Chinese Government has pursued the work of improving the water supply and latrine availability in rural areas, an initiative which has helped prevent and contain the incidence and spread of infectious intestinal diseases, reduce the burden on women to fetch water and emancipate their productive energies, develop household market-gardens and family aquaculture enterprises, and increase family income. By the end of 2000, the improvement in the water supply had benefited 881.12 million people in rural areas, accounting for 92.4 per cent of the rural population; 55.2 per cent of the total rural population had access to tap water. 106.59 million rural households or 44.8 per cent of the total, had their latrines upgraded, and the proportion of human waste subject to treatment reached 31.2 per cent. Fundamental improvements have thus been achieved in the living environment of rural women.

    Solving the current problem of regional poverty. As of 2001, there were nearly 30 million rural people living in poverty who did not have adequate food and clothing, and 60 million low-income rural people living just above the subsistence level. The percentage of women was slightly higher than that of men among these populations, which are mainly concentrated in the western regions of China. In 2000, the State formulated a development strategy for the western regions, with a focus on improving the environment for the survival and development of women and children living in mountainous areas, remote border areas and ethnic-minority areas. In order to eliminate poverty, the Government formulated the following policies:

    (1) Incorporating the reduction of women’s poverty into the overall national poverty alleviation plan and setting up targets in keeping with local conditions. For example, a nationwide movement for women’s poverty alleviation was implemented to provide support in terms of policy, projects, funding and information. In carrying out poverty relief actions, attention is given to improving the ecological environment, promoting the sustainable development of agriculture, enhancing women’s environmental awareness, and mobilizing women to participate in reforestation and anti-desertification efforts and pollution-free production. For example, the State Forestry Administration and the All-China Women’s Federation jointly launched a “March 8th Green Project” to mobilize women to participate in reforestation efforts, with a view to protecting the ecological environment and promoting the sustainable development of agriculture. In the past three years, around 120 million women all over China have participated each year in reforestation efforts, construction of shelter forest belt and reclamation of river basins; 750 million trees have been planted. In another example, new energy sources have been developed and utilized in a well-planned manner, in order to protect forest areas and reduce deforestation. By the end of 2001, 180 million rural households were using energy-efficient coal stoves, accounting for over 70 per cent of the total number of rural households; 9.50 million methane-generating tanks for household use had been built and 380,000 solar energy stoves put into use. These efforts have not only improved the environment but also reduced the burden of household work for women.

    (2) Poverty alleviation through credit and loans is an important aspect of this endeavour. In order to help women living in poverty engage in production and resolve the problem of funds shortages, the People’s Bank of China has decided to support women’s federations in their efforts to provide small loans to rural women. While adhering to credit and lending policies, priority will be given in providing preferential loans to women applicants who meet loan or credit conditions. The Agricultural Bank of China has also arranged special loans to help women escape poverty. In the past three years, women’s federations at various levels around the country have arranged for the issuance of 720 million yuan renminbi in microcredit for poverty alleviation and helped 4.6 million rural women get out of poverty.

    (3) Marshalling resources of the whole society to strengthen cultural and technical training for farmers, enhance the capacity of rural women to participate in economic development and combine the development of human and natural resources. Relevant government departments and women’s federations and science associations have conducted various activities to provide training, consultation and on-site guidance on modern agricultural techniques.

    (4) Calling upon the entire society to help women living in poverty. For example, a national “hand-in-hand” poverty reduction project mobilizes various social forces to carry out matching efforts to reduce poverty, with well-developed eastern regions helping less-developed western regions. The China Family Planning Association and the China Population Journal jointly launched a project to help mothers living in poverty, which has assisted mothers in 67,000 poor households and benefited 300,000 people. Another project, launched by the All-China Women’s Federation and the China Development Fund for Women to help arid areas in the western regions, has alleviated drinking-water problems for nearly 800,000 people through the construction of cisterns.

    (5) Adopting favourable policies and providing funds for ethnic-minority areas and giving priority to those areas in allocating infrastructure projects. In 1998, the amount of general transfer payments by the Government to the five ethnic-minority autonomous regions and the provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Qinghai, where there are large concentrations of ethnic minorities, reached 2.9 billion yuan renminbi, accounting for 48 per cent of the national total. Priority is given to helping ethnic-minority areas develop their cultural, education and health undertakings, and improving the education and health of women of ethnic minority groups. At present, hospitals, epidemic control centres and health centres for women and children have been set up in various autonomous regions, prefectures and counties. Grass-roots health organizations have been established in most pastoral and rural areas, and village doctors, medics and midwives have been trained. In 2000, the rate of enrolment in primary schools in ethnic-minority areas reached 97.44 per cent.

    Devoting major efforts to promote spiritual civilization in rural areas. Activities to raise awareness of law are conducted in rural areas in conjunction with activities to eliminate traditional ideas which discriminate against women, outdated conventions and undesirable customs, while advocating that people should respect the aged and take care of the young, treat men and women equally, aid the poor and give help to neighbours. Focus is placed on combating offences such as domestic violence and abducting and trafficking women and children in rural areas. Special courts, hotlines and complaints centres have been widely set up to facilitate women in filing complaints and brining lawsuits. Infringements upon women’s rights and interests are resolved through village committees, legal facilities and grass-roots women’s federations.

    In recent years, the development of the rural economy and the emphasis on building civilized families and communities have created a new culture among families, communities and society in general in rural areas. The spiritual outlook of rural women has changed significantly. They have learned to protect their legitimate rights and interests with legal means; they have changed from believing in their fate to believing in science and in themselves, and from only caring about their own families to caring about their communities and the country. They pursue knowledge, prosperity and development while actively participating in the affairs of society, and have broadened their horizons as well as their minds. According to a survey of the social status of Chinese women in 2000, the degree of women’s interest in public affairs has increased substantially, with 15.1 per cent of women surveyed having put forward suggestions to their work units and communities. The scope of women’s activities and communications has expanded, with 34.5 per cent of the women surveyed having been to other provinces or abroad; only 7.5 per cent had never travelled far from home.

    In response to the problem of suicide among women in rural areas, the Ministry of Health and the World Health Organization held a special meeting in March 2000 to discuss the causes of and responses to this problem. Representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture, the All-China Women’s Federation, the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medical Sciences, the Chinese Institute of Health Education, the University of Agriculture and the United Nations Development Programme participated in the meeting. Analysis of surveys identifies the main causes of suicide as depression or other mental disorders, family disputes, economic hardship, and severe illness, among others. Participants agreed that suicide is a major public-health and social problem, and that the focus in prevention should be on rural areas and comprehensive social support should be provided to rural women.

    At present, the health authorities are looking into ways to coordinate various departments in strengthening public health and mental health education, expanding service networks in rural areas, and training grass-roots health workers in the knowledge and techniques for conducting mental-health work so as to provide medical services to patients with mental disorders. The newly revised Marriage Law provides specific measures for resolving family disputes and protecting women’s rights and interests. The national poverty-alleviation plan and its accompanying microcredit initiative, income-generating activities and training efforts for rural women have combined the eradication of poverty with the elimination of ignorance. By strengthening efforts to combat illiteracy and provide scientific training, the plan paves the way for rural women to escape poverty and improve their lives. The development of the rural economy, the improvement of people’s living standards and the construction and strengthening of basic health facilities will also gradually improve the health conditions of rural women. Village committees and village women’s federations are paying attention to helping women with serious family disputes or economic difficulties to resolve their immediate problems. Relevant departments and social organizations are planning to conduct multidisciplinary research on women’s issues in rural areas, carry out pilot suicide prevention and intervention programmes in selected areas, establish a network of crisis intervention centres for rural women, and take effective measures to reduce the risk of suicide among rural women. At the same time, in order to prevent suicide, women should be provided with guidance to strengthen their awareness of legal means of self-protection, broaden their horizons, overcome their pessimism and enhance their psychological ability to withstand stress.

    In recent years, the Chinese Government has raised funds through multiple channels in an effort to establish a social security system with social-insurance, social-relief, social-welfare, special care and placement, mutual social-assistance and administrative services as the main elements. In 1991, implementation of the old-age pension system began in rural areas based on the principle that the system be funded mainly by individual contributions, subsidized by the collectives and supported by Government policy. The system is administered in individual accounts. When participants reach the age of eligibility, their old-age pensions are paid out according to rates set in accordance with the principal and interest accrued in their individual accounts. By the end of 2001, 2,045 counties around the country had implemented old-age pension systems with 59.95 million participants and 1.08 million starting to receive pensions. This measure has eased the long-term concerns of the rural population, reduced their dependence on their children and helped eliminate the deep-rooted preference for sons over daughters.

    While focusing on modernizing China’s rural areas, the Chinese Government is also aware of the obstacles that still exist. China is a developing country with a population in excess of 1.2 billion; the rural population accounts for 63.91 per cent of the total population. Generally speaking, agricultural productivity is low and regional disparities are significant. In particular, the mountainous, arid, high-altitude and remote border areas in the central and western regions suffer from adverse natural conditions, insufficient infrastructure, low productivity and very limited access to information. Most of the poverty-stricken population live in these areas, and their level of education tends to be low. A large number of women are illiterate, and the traditional idea that sons are better than daughters is still prevalent, inhibiting women’s development. In addition, the acute disparity between China’s large population and its resources and level of economic development constitutes yet another obstacle to attempts by China’s rural areas to shake off poverty and embark on the path of modernization. A radical change in this situation will require long-term efforts.

    Article 15

    1. States Parties shall accord to women equality with men before the law.

    2. States Parties shall accord to women, in civil matters, a legal capacity identical to that of men and the same opportunities to exercise that capacity. In particular, they shall give women equal rights to conclude contracts and to administer property and shall treat them equally in all stages of procedure in courts and tribunals.

    3. States Parties agree that all contracts and all other private instruments of any kind with a legal effect which is directed at restricting the legal capacity of women shall be deemed null and void.

    4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile.

    All laws formulated by the Chinese Government accord equal rights to women and men, and they enjoy the same opportunities to exercise these rights. These laws include the Constitution, Civil Law, Civil Procedure Law, Criminal Law, Criminal Procedure Law, Economic Contract Law, Marriage Law, Law of Inheritance, Law on Population and Family Planning and Rural Land Contract Law. There are no discriminatory provisions whatsoever in any law.

    Article 16

    1. States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations and in particular shall ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women:

    (a) The same right to enter into marriage;

    (b) The same right freely to choose a spouse and to enter into marriage only with their free and full consent;

    (c) The same rights and responsibilities during marriage and at its dissolution;

    (d) The same rights and responsibilities as parents, irrespective of their marital status, in matters relating to their children; in all cases the interests of the children shall be paramount;

    (e) The same rights to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights;

    (f) The same rights and responsibilities with regard to guardianship, ward ship, trusteeship and adoption of children, or similar institutions where these concepts exist in national legislation; in all cases the interests of the children shall be paramount;

    (g) The same personal rights as husband and wife, including the right to choose a family name, a profession and an occupation;

    (h) The same rights for both spouses in respect of the ownership, acquisition, management, administration, enjoyment and disposition of property, whether free of charge or for a valuable consideration.

    2. The betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary action, including legislation, shall be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage and to make the registration of marriages in an official registry compulsory.

    According to the Fifth National Population Census, conducted in 2000, the total population in the mainland of China was 1,265.83 million. There were 348.37 million households, with a total household population of 1,198.39 million and an average of 3.44 persons per household. Compared to the Fourth National Population Census in 1990, the number of households increased by 71.46 million, while the number of persons per household decreased by 0.52 person. According to a 1999 population-change survey, of the population over 15 years old in China in 1999, 74 per cent were married, 19 per cent were unmarried, 6 per cent were widowed and 1 per cent were divorced. In 2001, there were 8.05 million newlywed couples, reflecting a marriage rate of 12.6 per thousand, while there were 1.25 million divorced couples, reflecting a divorce rate of 1.96 per thousand. Since the 1990s, with the enhancement of women’s social status, people have been seeking higher-quality marriages and the concept of marriage has changed dramatically. The divorce rate has shown a gradual increase, but has basically stabilized below 2 per cent. In general, family relations in China are stable.

    Table 2

    Relevant Data on Marriage and Family


    1995
    1998
    1999
    2000
    2001






    No. of households (millions)
    316.76
    332.97
    341.53
    348.37
    353.30
    Household size (persons)
    3.7
    3.6
    3.4
    3.4
    3.4
    Marriage rate (‰)
    16.1
    14.5
    14.1
    13.4
    12.5
    Divorce rate (‰)
    1.8
    1.9
    1.9
    1.92
    1.96

    The Marriage Law originally in force in China was promulgated in 1950 and amended in 1980. The Law stipulated that a marriage system based on the free choice of partners, monogamy, and equality between man and woman shall be applied, and the legal rights and interests of women, children and the old shall be protected. These principles have played an active role in establishing equal, harmonious and civilized marriage and family relations and in maintaining social stability. However, 20 years of reform and opening-up in China have brought about profound changes in the political, economic, cultural and social spheres, directly impacting marriage and family life. The problems and conflicts relating to the marriage system, assets, divorce and domestic violence have become more apparent and complex. Some of the provisions in the old Marriage Law were too general, and there were no specific norms to address these emerging problems. In 1999, in response to requests from the general public, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress included the amendment of the Marriage Law in the legislative agenda of the Ninth Session of the National People’s Congress, and established a drafting group consisting of the People’s Congress, relevant Government departments, experts and non-Governmental organizations. After two years of extensive consultation with the society as a whole, the amended Marriage Law was promulgated in April 2001.

    The amended Marriage Law has been expanded from 37 articles in 5 chapters in the original Marriage Law to 52 articles in 6 chapters. Some 28 additions, revisions and deletions were made in the text. The Law has strengthened the sanctions against bigamy and other acts, made provisions for void or dissolved marriages, strictly prohibited domestic violence, clarified the scope of marital property, and added a provision stipulating that the party not at fault in a divorce shall have the right to make a claim for damage compensation.

    To counter the phenomena of bigamy, concubinage, illegal cohabitation and domestic violence that have appeared in recent years, the amended Marriage Law has added two important elements to the General Provisions: one prohibits bigamy and cohabitation of a married person with any third party, and the other prohibits domestic violence and the mistreatment or desertion of one family member by another. It also stipulates the general requirement that husband and wife shall be faithful to and respect each other; within the family, family members shall respect the old and cherish the young, help one another, and maintain equal, harmonious and civilized marriage and family relations.

    The amended Marriage Law allows for the invalidation of marriage and specifies the causes and procedure for and consequences of void marriage. For example, article 10 stipulates that marriage shall be invalid if one party commits bigamy; if the man and the woman are relatives by blood up to the third degree of kinship; if, before marriage, one party is suffering from a disease which is regarded by medical science as rendering a person unfit for marriage and, after marriage, a cure is not effected; and if the legally marriageable age is not attained. Article 11 stipulates that in the case of a marriage made under coercion, the coerced party may make a request to the marriage registration office or the People’s Court for the dissolution of the marriage contract; such a request shall be made within one year of the marriage registration date, and the party whose personal freedom has been curbed illegitimately shall make a request for dissolution of the marriage contract within one year of the date on which his or her personal freedom was restored. Article 12 further stipulates that void or dissolved marriage shall be invalid from its inception. Neither party concerned shall have the rights and duties of husband or wife. Property acquired during their cohabitation shall be subject to disposition by mutual agreement. If they fail to reach an agreement, the People’s Court shall issue a ruling on the basis of the principle of favourable consideration for the party not at fault. The disposition of the property of void marriage due to bigamy may not be to the detriment of the property rights and interests of the party to the lawful marriage. The provisions of the Law regarding parents and children shall apply to the children born from the parties concerned.

    The amended Marriage Law has refined the law on marital property. It clarifies the scope of community property, allows for separate property and makes detailed provisions regarding agreements concerning marital property. It clearly stipulates that husbands and wives shall enjoy equal rights to dispose of jointly-owned property. In its legal interpretations, the Supreme Court has also clearly stated that husbands and wives enjoy equal rights in the disposition of jointly-owned property. Either party has the right to decide on the disposition of jointly-owned property if such action is part of the normal course of daily activities. Husband and wife shall reach agreement through consultation on an equal basis when either needs to make any important decision on the disposition of jointly-owned property if such action is not part of the normal course of daily activities.

    In order to stop domestic violence, the amended Marriage Law also provides for assistance or succour measures and for legal liability, in addition to the explicit prohibition contained in its General Provisions. Article 43 stipulates that in regard to domestic violence towards or maltreatment of family member(s), the victim shall have the right to request that the neighbourhood or village committee as well as the work units of the parties concerned should dissuade the wrongdoer and provide mediation. In regard to domestic violence in progress, the victim shall have the right to request that the neighbourhood or village committee should dissuade the wrongdoer, and the public security organ should stop the violence. If, in regard to domestic violence to or maltreatment of family member(s), the victim so requests, the public security organ shall subject the wrongdoer to administrative penalties in accordance with the relevant provisions governing administrative penalties for public order. Article 45 further stipulates that if the bigamy, domestic violence to or maltreatment and desertion of family member(s) constitute criminal acts, the criminal responsibility of the wrongdoer shall be investigated according to law. The victim may institute a voluntary prosecution in a People’s Court in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Criminal Procedure Law. The public security organ shall investigate the case according to law and the People’s Procuratorate shall initiate a public prosecution according to law. Moreover, over 30 provinces and municipalities have formulated local laws, regulations and policies on the prevention and containment of domestic violence.

    The amended Marriage Law includes a provision on damage compensation. Article 46 stipulates that the party not at fault shall have the right to make a request for damage compensation under any of the following circumstances bringing about divorce: (1) bigamy; (2) cohabitation of a spouse with any third party; (3) domestic violence; and (4) maltreatment and desertion.

    The Law has also added a specific provision to protect the matrimonial rights of parents in the event of remarriage. Article 30 stipulates that children shall respect their parents’ matrimonial rights and shall not interfere in their parents’ remarriage and postnuptial life. Children’s duty to support their parents shall not terminate with a change in their parents’ matrimonial relationship.

    In some divorces, the denial by one party of the other party’s right to visit their children deprives the children of the love of their father or mother, which is detrimental to their development. Thus, article 38 of the amended Marriage Law stipulates that following divorce, the non-custodial parent shall have the right to visit the children, while the other parent shall have the duty to facilitate such visits. The parents shall reach an agreement about how and when to exercise visitation rights; if they fail to reach such an agreement, the People’s Court shall make a ruling. If the visits of the father or mother results in the detriment of the children’s mental or physical health, a People’s Court shall suspend visitation rights in accordance with the law; such rights to be restored if the main reason for the suspension is no longer valid.

    Taking account of the fact that many women have difficulties with housing after divorce, article 42 of the amended Marriage Law stipulates that if, at the time of divorce, one party has difficulties supporting himself or herself, the other party shall provide appropriate assistance from her or his personal property, such as a dwelling house. Specific arrangements shall be made between the parties through consultation; if they fail to reach an agreement, the People’s Court shall make a ruling.

    The amended Marriage Law also emphasizes the duties of parents to their children. Article 21 stipulates that the drowning of infants, abandonment and any other acts causing serious harm to infants, and infanticide, shall be prohibited. Article 23 stipulates that parents shall have the right and duty to subject their minor children to discipline and to protect them. If minor children cause damage to the State, the collective, or individuals, their parents shall have the duty to bear civil liability. The amended Marriage Law is a more comprehensive and detailed instrument for protecting the rights and interests of women and children.

    In order to better help orphans integrate into family and society, China amended its Adoption Law in November 1998. The amended Law explicitly stipulates the legal rights of adopters and adoptees, and has eased the restrictions for adoption and improved the adoption procedure. Article 2 of the amended Adoption Law stipulates that adoption shall be in the interest of the upbringing and growth of adopted minors; the legitimate rights and interests of the adoptee and the adopter shall be protected, in conformity with the principles of equality and voluntariness, and not in contravention of social morality. The minimum age of adopters has been changed from 35 to 30. The Law also stipulates that orphans, disabled children or abandoned infants and children, who are raised in social welfare institutions and whose biological parents cannot be ascertained or found, may be adopted irrespective of the restrictions that the adopter shall be childless and adopt one child only. In the amended Adoption Law, the adoption conditions have been made more reasonable and the adoption procedure more scientific, thus better addressing the best interests of children.

    In order to ensure the implementation of the Marriage Law, China is revising the Regulations on Marriage Registration.

    In order to create equal, harmonious and civilized marriage and family relations, and building on the long-term “Model Families of Five Virtues” campaign, a national coordinating group for the campaign was set up in 1996. Under the guidance of this group, which is composed of 18 Government departments and non-Governmental organizations, the campaign has been included in the overall national plan for economic, social and cultural development. In recent years, it has carried out a series of regular activities:

    • Holding symposiums, seminars and training courses for newly-wed couples, using the media and other means to promote relevant laws and regulations and the environment required for civilized families, and giving impetus to the development of the concept of equal, harmonious and civilized marriage and family. In particular, the campaign has extensively publicized the amended Marriage Law, urging people to become promoters and practitioners of happy and civilized families.

    • Carrying out six specific activities designed to establish civilized families: (1) enhancing awareness of the need to protect the environment, eliminate pollution, sort waste and make the living environment green; (2) cracking down on prostitution, gambling and drugs so as to clean up the social environment and maintain social order; (3) organizing study, reading and lecture activities to eliminate ignorance, superstitions and backward customs and traditions, and disseminate scientific and cultural knowledge; (4) organizing a full range of recreational, health care and sports activities to enrich the cultural life of the people; (5) promoting volunteer community activities to help the poor and those in need so as to expand community services and facilitate daily life; (6) evaluate and select the “model families of five virtues”, respect the old and cherish the young, help one’s neighbours and build closer interpersonal relationships.

    These activities are welcomed and supported by the broad masses of the people. For example, a home-beautification campaign was launched in Shandong Province, focusing on greening, beautifying and cleaning up the environment and on improving the water-supply system and renovating latrines, kitchens and farmyards so as to ensure the improvement of the environment. During the period from 1999 to 2000, over 10 million water-supply systems and a similar number of latrines and kitchens were upgraded in the Province, along with over 8 million farmyards as well. The rate of latrine improvement was nearly 60 per cent. A 10-day family art festival was also recently held in Gulangyu District of Xiameng in Fujian Province, featuring more than 20 recreational and sports activities, such as singing, drama, dance, calligraphy and painting, photography, talent shows, handicrafts competitions, fashion shows, heirloom exhibits, flower shows, sports meets, character selection and quiz competitions. The festival attracted families from all over the District, helping to enrich people’s cultural lives and building closer family and interpersonal relationships.

    A survey of the social status of Chinese women in 2000 showed that 93.2 per cent of women in urban and rural areas were “very satisfied” or “relatively satisfied” with their marriage and family life.

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)

    Census years
    Total population
    Sex ratio (female=100)
    Both sexes
    Male
    Female
    1953
    594,350
    307,990
    286,360
    107.56
    1964
    694,580
    356,520
    338,060
    105.46
    1982
    1,008,180
    519,440
    488,740
    106.30
    1990
    1,133,680
    584,950
    548,730
    106.60
    2000
    1,265,830
    653,550
    612,280
    106.74

    Table A2

    Comparison of sex ratio of total population

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)

    Region
    Total population in 2000
    Total population in 1990
    Sex ratio
    Total
    Male
    Female
    Total
    Male
    Female
    2000
    1990
    National
    1,265,830
    653,550
    612,280
    1,133,680
    584,950
    548,730
    106.74
    106.60
    Beijing
    13,820
    7,210
    6,610
    10,820
    5,590
    5,230
    108.97
    107.04
    Tianjin
    10,010
    5,100
    4,910
    8,790
    4,470
    4,310
    103.99
    103.63
    Hebei
    67,440
    34,330
    33,110
    61,080
    31,210
    29,870
    103.67
    104.48
    Shanxi
    32,970
    17,060
    15,910
    28,760
    14,960
    13,800
    107.28
    108.39
    Inner Mongolia
    23,760
    12,290
    11,470
    21,460
    11,160
    10,300
    107.17
    108.31
    Liaoning
    42,380
    21,610
    20,770
    39,460
    20,150
    19,310
    104.03
    104.38
    Jilin
    27,280
    13,970
    13,310
    24,660
    12,620
    12,030
    104.92
    104.90
    Heilongjiang
    36,890
    18,860
    18,030
    35,210
    18,050
    17,170
    104.60
    105.14
    Shanghai
    16,740
    8,600
    8,140
    13,340
    6,810
    6,540
    105.74
    104.16
    Jiangsu
    74,380
    37,660
    36,720
    67,060
    34,120
    32,930
    102.58
    103.61
    Zhejiang
    46,770
    24,020
    22,750
    41,450
    21,360
    20,080
    105.57
    106.39
    Anhui
    59,860
    30,890
    28,970
    56,180
    29,030
    27,150
    106.61
    106.89
    Fujian
    34,710
    17,890
    16,820
    30,050
    15,430
    14,610
    106.35
    105.62
    Jiangxi
    41,400
    21,530
    19,870
    37,710
    19,490
    18,220
    108.31
    107.01
    Shandong
    90,790
    45,960
    44,830
    84,390
    42,920
    41,480
    102.53
    103.47
    Henan
    92,560
    47,750
    44,810
    85,510
    43,810
    41,700
    106.58
    105.08
    Hubei
    60,280
    31,380
    28,900
    53,970
    27,830
    26,140
    108.59
    106.46
    Hunan
    64,400
    33,590
    30,810
    60,660
    31,500
    29,160
    109.02
    108.04
    Guangdong
    86,420
    44,020
    42,400
    62,830
    32,150
    30,680
    103.82
    104.81
    Guangxi
    44,890
    23,780
    21,110
    42,250
    22,160
    20,090
    112.68
    110.30
    Hainan
    7,870
    4,120
    3,750
    6,560
    3,420
    3,140
    109.77
    108.92
    Chongqing
    30,900
    16,050
    14,850
    28,860
    14,990
    13,870
    108.04
    108.07
    Sichuan
    83,290
    43,050
    40,240
    78,360
    40,560
    37,800
    106.98
    107.30
    Guizhou
    35,250
    18,470
    16,780
    32,390
    16,770
    15,620
    110.10
    107.35
    Yunnan
    42,880
    22,470
    20,410
    36,970
    19,000
    17,980
    110.11
    105.67
    Tibet
    2,620
    1,330
    1,290
    2,200
    1,100
    1,100
    102.62
    100.13
    Shaanxi
    36,050
    18,750
    17,300
    32,880
    17,070
    15,810
    108.38
    107.97
    Gansu
    25,620
    13,280
    12,340
    22,370
    11,590
    10,780
    107.59
    107.56
    Qinghai
    5,180
    2,680
    2,500
    4,460
    2,310
    2,150
    107.06
    107.64
    Ningxia
    5,620
    2,880
    2,740
    4,660
    2,390
    2,270
    105.28
    105.45
    Xinjiang
    19,250
    9,960
    9,290
    15,160
    7,820
    7,330
    107.27
    106.64

    Note: 1990 data are from Major Figures on 4th Population Census of China (manual tabulation), edited by the National Population Census Office.

    N044030501.jpg

    (Unit: 1,000 persons, %)

    Census
    years
    Total
    population
    Han nationality
    Minority nationalities
    Population
    % of total population
    Avg. annual growth rate

    Population

    % of total population
    Avg. annual growth rate
    1953
    582,600
    547,280
    93.94

    35,320
    6.06

    1964
    694,580
    654,560
    94.24
    1.64
    40,020
    5.76
    1.14
    1982
    1,008,180
    940,880
    93.32
    2.04
    67,300
    6.68
    2.93
    1990
    1,133,680
    1,042,480
    91.96
    1.29
    91,200
    8.04
    3.87
    2000
    1,265,830
    1,159,400
    91.59
    1.03
    106,430
    8.41
    1.51

    Note: Population from 1953 census excludes population surveyed indirectly.

    Table A4

    Population of Han and minority nationalities (2000)

    (Units: 1,000 persons, %)

    Region
    Total
    Han nationality
    Minority nationalities
    Population
    % of total
    Population
    % of total
    National
    1,265,830
    1,159,400
    91.59
    106,430
    8.41
    Beijing
    13,820
    13,230
    95.74
    590
    4.26
    Tianjin
    10,010
    9,750
    97.36
    260
    2.64
    Hebei
    67,440
    64,530
    65.69
    2,910
    4.31
    Shanxi
    32,970
    32,870
    99.71
    100
    0.29
    Inner Mongolia
    23,760
    18,830
    79.24
    4,930
    20.76
    Liaoning
    42,380
    35,600
    83.98
    6,780
    16.02
    Jilin
    27,280
    24,820
    90.97
    2,460
    9.03
    Heilongjiang
    36,890
    35,040
    94.98
    1,850
    5.02
    Shanghai
    16,740
    16,640
    99.40
    100
    0.60
    Jiangsu
    74,380
    74,130
    99.67
    250
    0.33
    Zhejiang
    46,770
    46,370
    99.15
    400
    0.85
    Anhui
    59,860
    59,480
    99.37
    380
    0.63
    Fujian
    34,710
    34,130
    98.33
    580
    1.67
    Jiangxi
    41,400
    41,290
    99.73
    110
    0.27
    Shandong
    90,790
    90,170
    99.32
    620
    0.68
    Henan
    92,560
    91,430
    98.78
    1,130
    1.22
    Hubei
    60,280
    57,660
    95.66
    2,620
    4.34
    Hunan
    64,400
    57,820
    89.79
    6,580
    10.21
    Guangdong
    86,420
    85,190
    98.58
    1,230
    1.42
    Guangxi
    44,890
    27,680
    61.66
    17,210
    38.34
    Hainan
    7,870
    6,510
    82.71
    1,360
    17.29
    Chongqing
    30,900
    28,920
    93.58
    1,980
    6.42
    Sichuan
    83,290
    79,140
    95.02
    4,150
    4.98
    Guizhou
    35,250
    21,910
    62.15
    13,340
    37.85
    Yunnan
    42,880
    28,550
    66.59
    14,330
    33.41
    Tibet
    2,620
    160
    5.93
    2,460
    94.07
    Shaanxi
    36,050
    3,587
    99.51
    180
    0.49
    Gansu
    25,620
    2,339
    91.31
    2,230
    8.69
    Qinghai
    5,180
    282
    54.49
    2,360
    45.51
    Ningxia
    6,520
    368
    65.47
    1,940
    34.53
    Xinjiang
    19,250
    782
    40.61
    11,430
    59.39

    Table A5

    Population growth by nationality

    (Unit: 1,000 persons, %)

    Region

    Han nationality

    Minority nationalities
    2000
    1990
    Avg. annual growth rate (%)
    2000
    1990
    Avg. annual growth rate (%)
    National
    1,159,400
    1,042,480
    1.03
    106,430
    91,200
    1.51
    Beijing
    13,230
    10,410
    2.35
    590
    410
    3.49
    Tianjin
    9,750
    8,580
    1.24
    260
    200
    2.70
    Hebei
    64,530
    58,680
    0.92
    2,910
    2,400
    1.87
    Shanxi
    32,870
    28,680
    1.33
    100
    80
    1.50
    Inner Mongolia
    18,830
    17,300
    0.82
    4,930
    4,160
    1.67
    Liaoning
    35,600
    33,300
    0.65
    6,780
    6,160
    0.93
    Jilin
    24,820
    22,140
    1.11
    2,460
    2,520
    -0.21
    Heilongjiang
    35,040
    33,220
    0.52
    1,850
    1,990
    -0.70
    Shanghai
    16,640
    13,280
    2.21
    100
    60
    4.84
    Jiangsu
    74,130
    66,900
    1.00
    250
    150
    4.80
    Zhejiang
    46,370
    41,230
    1.14
    400
    210
    6.30
    Anhui
    59,480
    55,860
    0.61
    380
    320
    1.53
    Fujian
    34,130
    29,580
    1.39
    580
    460
    2.18
    Jiangxi
    41,290
    37,610
    0.91
    110
    100
    1.13
    Shandong
    90,170
    83,890
    0.70
    620
    500
    2.04
    Henan
    91,430
    84,500
    0.77
    1,130
    1,010
    1.11
    Hubei
    57,660
    51,830
    1.04
    2610
    2,140
    1.98
    Hunan
    57,820
    55,850
    0.34
    6,580
    4,810
    3.06
    Guangdong
    85,190
    62,480
    3.05
    1,230
    350
    12.89
    Guangxi
    27,680
    25,740
    0.71
    17,210
    16,510
    0.40
    Hainan
    6,510
    5,440
    1.75
    1,360
    1,120
    1.95
    Chongqing
    28,920
    27,380
    0.53
    1,980
    1,480
    2.85
    Sichuan
    79,140
    74,950
    0.53
    4,150
    3,410
    1.92
    Guizhou
    21,910
    21,150
    0.34
    13,340
    11,240
    1.68
    Yunnan
    28,550
    24,630
    1.44
    14,330
    12,340
    1.45
    Tibet
    160
    80
    6.48
    2,460
    2,110
    1.49
    Shaanxi
    35,870
    32,730
    0.89
    180
    160
    1.15
    Gansu
    23,390
    20,510
    1.28
    2,230
    1,860
    1.78
    Qinghai
    2,820
    2,580
    0.87
    2,360
    1,880
    2.23
    Ningxia
    3,680
    3,110
    1.65
    1,940
    1,550
    2.21
    Xinjiang
    7,820
    5,700
    3.11
    11,430
    9,460
    1.85

    Note: 1990 data are from Major Figures on 4th Population Census of China (manual tabulation),edited by the

    National Population Census Office.

    Table A6

    Female participation in political decision-making (1995-2000)

    Region
    Percentage of female deputies in People’s Congresses
    Percentage of female members of People’s Political Consultative Conferences
    Percentage of women in Government/
    Party leadership
    Percentage of female leaders of Government departments
    Percentage of women
    cadres
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    National
    21.03*
    21.81*
    13.52*
    15.54*
    6.0
    7.8

    7.7
    33.3
    36.2
    Beijing
    25.3
    25.8
    25.5
    27.4
    4.8
    13.6
    11.2
    14.5
    45.0
    46.4
    Tianjin
    18.0
    19.9
    19.0
    20.4
    0.1
    0.1
    8.0
    8.0
    46.0
    44.0
    Hebei
    20.5
    20.9
    13.5
    15.0
    10.5
    5.3
    7.6
    7.6
    34.8
    40.6
    Shanxi
    23.0
    23.4
    21.5
    21.5

    11.8
    10.1
    8.4
    34.6
    38.9
    Inner Mongolia
    23.0
    24.3
    17.8
    19.1
    9.5
    9.1
    7.2
    10.8
    35.2
    39.1
    Liaoning
    21.1
    19.8
    16.8
    18.8
    9.1
    10.5
    7.0
    12.3
    40.1
    42.7
    Jilin
    18.0
    17.3
    17.0
    17.1
    5.3
    11.8
    7.5
    10.3
    38.2
    40.0
    Heilongjiang
    21.2
    20.7
    11.5
    15.9
    5.6
    10.5
    4.9
    11.2
    37.9
    40.3
    Shanghai
    23.0
    23.5
    17.0
    16.5
    14.3
    9.1
    10.7
    12.1
    39.6
    40.1
    Jiangsu
    22.0
    22.1
    14.4
    15.3
    4.8
    0.0
    7.8
    11.3
    29.8
    33.4
    Zhejiang
    25.3
    22.7
    16.9
    18.4
    6.3
    10.5
    6.2
    6.6
    33.3
    38.2
    Anhui
    22.5
    26.0
    17.3
    19.2
    5.9
    6.3
    6.8
    11.1
    26.1
    29.1
    Fujian
    21.3
    20.1
    14.6
    17.2
    4.8
    5.0
    3.1
    10.6
    29.6
    34.4
    Jiangxi
    17.6
    22.3
    15.8
    18.2
    5.9
    0.0
    6.4
    9.6
    27.1
    29.8
    Shandong
    20.5
    20.6
    15.5
    16.3
    5.0
    8.3
    7.5
    8.2
    30.1
    33.8
    Henan
    22.0
    21.9
    14.3
    14.6
    5.9
    5.3
    4.9
    5.7
    30.2
    35.6
    Hubei
    22.2
    19.1
    17.6
    16.2
    5.0
    5.3
    7.8
    9.5
    30.5
    32.8
    Hunan
    22.0
    22.8
    14.9
    16.9
    5.0
    5.3
    8.1
    8.0
    30.4
    33.5
    Guangdong
    24.1
    24.9
    13.1
    13.9
    8.3
    8.7
    7.5
    9.3
    30.6
    36.4
    Guangxi
    24.3
    26.7
    16.8
    17.9
    9.5
    10.5
    9.5
    9.8
    30.5
    34.9
    Hainan
    20.3
    20.7
    13.6
    16.7
    6.7
    11.8

    5.2
    26.3
    29.4
    Chongqing
    21.1
    22.2
    14.4
    17.3
    10.0
    10.0
    8.4
    10.4
    32.5
    36.0
    Sichuan
    19.5
    20.8
    15.6
    17.2
    3.9
    8.7
    7.0
    13.1
    32.2
    35.2
    Guizhou
    22.9
    23.7
    13.7
    18.1
    8.7
    4.6
    6.5
    9.2
    31.4
    33.6
    Yunnan
    20.2
    24.3
    16.6
    23.2
    5.6
    5.9


    31.7
    36.0
    Tibet
    20.0
    20.1
    15.8
    17.5
    12.5
    8.0
    8.3
    11.1
    31.8
    34.3
    Shaanxi
    19.6
    22.8
    21.5
    21.1
    4.8
    3.1
    2.9
    9.1
    28.9
    32.7
    Gansu
    20.6
    22.9
    15.2
    14.8
    4.8
    5.0
    6.5
    6.6
    27.0
    29.0
    Qinghai
    18.8
    19.5
    9.6
    13.5
    9.1
    5.3

    9.5
    35.0
    36.7
    Ningxia
    16.2
    16.9
    18.3
    19.1

    5.3
    5.1
    6.3
    31.9
    35.3
    Xinjiang
    22.9
    22.4
    15.9
    18.2
    3.7
    3.9
    4.0
    6.2
    41.4
    45.5

    (* indicates deputies of National People’s Congress or members of National People’s Political Consultative Conference.)

    Table A7

    Number of female students by level of regular schools (1998-2001)

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)


    1998
    1999
    2000
    2001
    Number
    % of
    total
    Number
    % of
    total
    Number
    % of
    total
    Number
    % of
    total
    Institutions of higher education
    1,305.9
    38.31
    1,620.6
    39.66
    2,278.9
    40.98
    3,023.0
    42.04
    Specialized secondary schools
    2,124.5
    52.33
    2,278.0
    53.60
    2,253.6
    54.68
    2,165.1
    55.27
    Secondary normal schools
    602.0
    65.35
    596.5
    65.89
    519.5
    67.49
    464.3
    70.09
    Regular secondary schools
    28,776.8
    45.67
    31,092.4
    45.92
    34,023.8
    46.17
    36,433.3
    46.49
    Vocational secondary schools
    2,596.9
    47.95
    2,547.3
    47.71
    2,373.6
    47.17
    2,216.5
    47.52
    Work-study schools
    0.6
    10.30
    0.6
    8.32
    0.6
    7.46
    0.6
    7.18
    Primary schools
    66,455.7
    47.63
    64,548.7
    47.64
    61,945.6
    47.60
    59,368.0
    47.33
    Special-education schools
    129.8
    36.22
    130.9
    35.22
    135.4
    35.87
    130.5
    33.77
    Kindergartens
    11,149.4
    46.40
    10,713.6
    46.06
    10,340.7
    46.08
    9,175.2
    45.38

    Table A8

    Enrollment rate, five-year retention rate and dropout rate

    of primary-school pupils (1998-2001)


    Enrollment rate (%)
    Five-year retention rate (%)
    Dropout rate (%)
    National total
    Girls
    National total
    Girls
    National total
    Girls
    1998
    98.90
    98.90
    90.50
    91.10
    0.93
    0.92
    1999
    99.10
    99.00
    92.48
    92.68
    0.90
    0.86
    2000
    99.10
    99.07
    94.54
    94.48
    0.55
    0.61
    2001
    99.05
    99.01
    95.30
    95.05
    0.27
    0.31

    Table A9

    Number of female staff by level of regular schools

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)


    1998
    1999
    2000
    2001
    Number
    % of
    total
    Number
    % of
    total
    Number
    % of
    total
    Number
    % of
    total
    Institutions of higher education
    415.2
    40.32
    438.1
    41.14
    456.6
    41.03
    503.5
    41.46
    Specialized secondary schools
    187.6
    43.13
    183.6
    43.56
    174.0
    43.73
    156.8
    44.45
    Secondary normal schools
    45.3
    40.65
    43.9
    40.96
    37.1
    41.20
    31.6
    41.47
    Regular secondary schools
    1,732.9
    37.50
    1,827.1
    38.44
    1,934.0
    39.38
    2,089.0
    40.57
    Vocational secondary schools
    186.6
    39.05
    188.0
    39.81
    180.2
    40.33
    178.5
    41.51
    Work-study schools
    0.8
    30.66
    0.8
    29.25
    0.8
    31.53
    00.8
    30.19
    Primary schools
    3,026.6
    46.96
    3,087.9
    47.72
    3,143.4
    48.70
    3,208.3
    50.29
    Special education schools
    25.4
    61.09
    26.9
    59.60
    25.7
    58.79
    25.7
    66.02
    Kindergartens
    1,083.9
    93.63
    1,078.0
    93.06
    1,059.6
    92.60
    812.9
    94.33

    Table A10

    Number of female teachers by level of regular schools (1998-2000)

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)


    1998
    1999
    2000
    2001
    Number
    % of total
    Number
    % of total
    Number
    % of total
    Number
    % of total
    Institutions of higher education
    147.8
    36.28
    159.0
    37.35
    177.0
    38.24
    210.5
    39.57
    Specialized secondary schools
    96.1
    44.71
    95.8
    45.24
    92.7
    45.50
    85.9
    46.58
    Secondary normal schools
    26.4
    41.59
    26.0
    42.00
    22.3
    42.49
    19.7
    43.20
    Regular secondary schools
    1,454.2
    39.33
    1,550.3
    40.37
    1,657.4
    41.38
    1,784.5
    42.60
    Vocational secondary schools
    137.8
    41.05
    141.5
    42.17
    137.1
    42.86
    134.2
    43.87
    Work-study schools
    0.4
    29.74
    0.4
    27.89
    00.5
    30.07
    0.4
    29.08
    Primary schools
    2,846.1
    48.91
    2,909.7
    49.65
    2,967.3
    50.63
    3,023.9
    52.16
    Special education schools
    19.9
    66.41
    20.4
    65.05
    20.4
    63.69
    20.5
    72.10
    Kindergartens
    826.7
    94.43
    817.0
    93.64
    802.7
    93.72
    537.7
    98.43

    Table A11

    Enrollment and completion rates of school-age children in primary schools

    Region
    Net enrollment rate (%)
    Completion rate (%)
    Dropout rate (%)
    Boys
    Girls
    Boys
    Girls
    Boys
    Girls
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    National
    98.5
    (93)
    99.14
    96.8 (93)
    99.07
    70.5
    93.1
    68.9
    93.1
    1.49
    (95)
    0.5
    1.49
    (95)
    0.61
    Beijing
    99.70
    99.96
    99.60
    99.95

    99.84



    0.06

    0.09
    Tianjin
    95.60
    99.99
    95.58
    99.99

    99.72

    99.80

    0.02

    0.03
    Hebei
    99.90
    99.90
    98.10
    99.90
    76.70
    99.40
    76.00
    99.30

    0.51

    0.25
    Shanxi
    88.60
    99.70
    89.70
    99.80

    97.80

    99.80
    1.00
    0.40
    1.70
    0.10
    Inner Mongolia
    97.00
    99.50
    98.30
    99.50
    86.10
    90.70
    82.40
    92.20
    2.80
    0.80
    3.50
    0.70
    Liaoning
    99.26
    99.31
    98.87
    99.33
    92.48
    94.68
    94.07
    96.82

    0.31

    0.22
    Jilin
    99.20
    99.76
    98.60
    99.81
    82.60
    93.71
    80.90
    94.11
    1.20
    0.35
    1.50
    0.76
    Heilongjiang
    98.20
    99.50
    98.90
    98.80
    69.60
    94.00
    71.70
    91.40
    2.10
    0.50
    2.10
    0.40
    Shanghai
    99.94
    99.99
    99.93
    99.99
    98.05
    98.90
    98.05
    99.62
    0.05
    0.05
    0.05
    0.03
    Jiangsu
    99.60
    99.90
    98.00
    99.90
    84.50
    90.30
    78.90
    94.80
    0.50
    0.75
    0.50
    0.40
    Zhejiang
    99.71
    99.93
    98.76
    99.94





    0.01

    0.02
    Anhui
    97.10
    99.65
    99.20
    99.68

    99.95

    97.33

    0.38

    0.33
    Fujian
    99.64
    99.86
    98.50
    99.85
    98.02
    96.45
    97.80
    98.60
    0.59
    0.11
    0.61
    0.05
    Jiangxi
    99.86
    99.55
    96.37
    99.60
    71.40
    91.27
    62.03
    91.92
    3.08
    0.22
    1.10
    0.32
    Shandong
    99.90
    99.78
    96.70
    99.78
    72.90
    93.87
    69.30
    95.87

    0.32

    0.49
    Henan

    99.83

    99.86







    0.70
    Hubei
    99.01
    99.49
    97.50
    99.57
    65.48
    91.31
    62.09
    90.07
    2.15
    0.34
    2.47
    0.51
    Hunan

    98.43

    98.41
    84.20
    95.60
    80.60
    93.11

    0.29

    0.50
    Guangdong
    99.12
    99.68
    98.80
    99.71
    80.73
    99.99
    75.93
    99.89
    1.89
    0.09
    1.97
    0.08
    Guangxi
    98.61
    98.73
    95.11
    98.61
    47.78
    91.93
    52.63
    91.10

    0.89

    0.79
    Hainan
    92.20
    99.67
    98.60
    99.74
    81.53
    83.33
    79.83
    87.88

    2.36

    1.62
    Chongqing

    99.80

    99.90

    99.20

    98.90

    0.60

    0.60
    Sichuan

    99.20

    98.90





    1.40

    1.30
    Guizhou

    98.72
    81.59
    98.16
    48.05
    76.71
    47.41
    76.23
    7.65
    1.59
    8.13
    2.12
    Yunnan
    91.32
    99.11

    98.91
    52.36
    85.61
    47.88
    84.44
    4.27
    1.32
    6.30
    1.53
    Tibet

    88.50

    82.90

    64.80

    87.40

    2.60

    2.10
    Shaanxi
    98.49
    99.34
    97.61
    99.42
    65.03
    92.10
    64.48
    93.76
    3.04
    0.64
    3.14
    0.36
    Gansu

    99.10

    98.60

    90.00

    87.00



    2.00
    Qinghai
    85.46
    93.09
    77.11
    95.26
    44.59
    70.92
    46.80
    70.82
    4.86
    2.11
    4.65
    2.18
    Ningxia
    99.00
    98.40
    88.10
    96.10
    74.70
    82.90
    73.30
    78.40
    3.10
    1.70
    2.90
    2.30
    Xinjiang
    98.60
    96.90
    96.50
    97.20
    56.70
    87.70
    56.70
    78.50

    1.80

    1.00

    Table A12

    Employment in China (1995/2000)

    Region
    Total number of
    employed persons (x1,000)
    Percentage of women in employment
    Percentage of women in employment in urban areas
    Percentage of women among registered unemployed persons in urban areas
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    1995
    2000
    National
    680,650
    720,850
    45.7
    45.3
    38.5
    38.0
    52.6(98)
    49.0
    Beijing
    6,695
    6,221
    44.6
    41.4
    38.5
    36.0
    50.0
    53.0
    Tianjin
    4,897
    4,067
    42.8
    41.7
    38.8
    38.3
    45.0
    56.0
    Hebei
    33,673
    34,412
    45.7
    45.1
    42.6
    38.6
    33.1
    54.9
    Shanxi
    14,604
    1,4191
    40.0
    39.7
    36.4
    35.1


    Inner Mongolia
    10,245
    10,166
    42.5
    42.3
    33.8
    38.4
    53.6
    53.2
    Liaoning
    20,340
    18,126
    43.2
    43.2
    38.4
    38.5
    55.3
    52.2
    Jilin
    12,545
    10,789
    42.5
    42.4
    41.6
    38.9

    55.5
    Heilongjiang
    15,524
    16,350
    39.6
    40.6
    40.1
    36.1
    50.0
    51.0
    Shanghai
    7,680
    6,731
    46.5
    42.3
    38.3
    39.0
    43.7
    44.0
    Jiangsu
    37,654
    35,588
    48.7
    47.6
    42.0
    39.0

    45.9
    Zhejiang
    27,007
    27,005
    41.1
    42.3
    40.5
    38.7
    37.1
    50.4
    Anhui
    32,068
    33,729
    46.8
    46.3
    39.4
    35.5
    52.0
    53.2
    Fujian
    15,670
    16,602
    41.1
    43.0
    37.0
    42.8
    55.0

    Jiangxi
    20,592
    19,353
    45.0
    45.3
    40.5
    36.1
    48.6
    54.1
    Shandong
    46,254
    46,618
    46.9
    46.6
    37.2
    39.2
    37.3
    50.9
    Henan
    46,967
    55,717
    47.5
    47.1
    38.4
    37.4
    55.2

    Hubei
    27,070
    25,078
    46.2
    45.6
    36.6
    39.2
    37.8
    44.3
    Hunan
    35,061
    34,621
    45.5
    44.5
    40.3
    37.0

    51.1
    Guangdong
    36,568
    38,610
    45.7
    46.7
    38.5
    42.1
    58.7
    52.8
    Guangxi
    23,825
    25,304
    46.9
    46.0
    40.5
    38.1
    49.2
    52.2
    Hainan
    3,353
    3,337
    46.6
    45.7
    36.6
    40.4
    43.5

    Chongqing

    16,365

    46.6

    35.2
    54.0
    52.2
    Sichuan
    63,353
    44,358
    47.9
    47.3
    39.2
    35.9
    54.0
    49.1
    Guizhou
    18,571
    20,459
    47.4
    46.3
    36.9
    33.8
    57.7
    48.9
    Yunnan
    21,863
    22,954
    47.3
    46.6
    33.3
    36.7
    54.8
    48.5
    Tibet
    1,137
    1,234
    47.8
    47.2
    35.4
    33.7


    Shaanxi
    17,744
    18,128
    45.7
    44.9
    33.0
    35.8
    54.2
    56.1
    Gansu
    11,594
    11,821
    46.1
    46.5
    35.4
    35.1
    51.7
    52.7
    Qinghai
    2,260
    2,386
    45.0
    45.8
    34.5
    36.0
    49.7
    52.2
    Ningxia
    2,436
    2,744
    46.6
    45.3
    35.8
    36.8
    51.6
    44. 7
    Xinjiang
    6,622
    6,725
    44.0
    42.8
    35.8
    41.5
    48.9
    50.9

    Table A13

    Female employment in urban units by registration status and region (end of year)

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)

    Year
    Total
    State-owned units
    Urban collective-owned units
    Other ownership
    units
    1994
    57,991
    39,825
    14,511
    3,645
    1995
    58,890
    40,590
    13,990
    4,310
    1996
    58,833
    40,883
    13,378
    4,573
    1997
    58,248
    40,302
    12,710
    5,236
    1999
    46,134
    31,280
    7,028
    7,827
    2000
    44,113
    29,525
    6,058
    8,530
    Region




    Beijing
    1,556
    1,009
    129
    418
    Tianjin
    773
    421
    108
    245
    Hebei
    2,121
    1,628
    233
    261
    Shanxi
    1,341
    993
    197
    151
    Inner Mongolia
    1,029
    748
    117
    165
    Liaoning
    2,317
    1,519
    424
    374
    Jilin
    1,301
    926
    212
    163
    Heilongjiang
    2,006
    1,450
    306
    249
    Shanghai
    1,366
    751
    146
    470
    Jiangsu
    2,702
    1,497
    515
    690
    Zhejiang
    1,488
    790
    187
    510
    Anhui
    1,430
    933
    286
    212
    Fujian
    1,394
    620
    130
    644
    Jiangxi
    1,081
    833
    135
    113
    Shandong
    3,161
    1,951
    473
    737
    Henan
    2,745
    1,669
    586
    490
    Hubei
    2,132
    1,576
    277
    278
    Hunan
    1,694
    1,355
    218
    121
    Guangdong
    3,196
    1,624
    412
    1,161
    Guangxi
    1,125
    883
    113
    129
    Hainan
    321
    270
    16
    34
    Chongqing
    750
    518
    110
    122
    Sichuan
    1,898
    1,361
    241
    295
    Guizhou
    680
    540
    67
    73
    Yunnan
    1,028
    820
    97
    111
    Tibet
    60
    55
    4
    1
    Shaanxi
    1,208
    937
    127
    144
    Gansu
    723
    577
    101
    44
    Qinghai
    173
    150
    17
    7
    Ningxia
    236
    188
    18
    31
    Xinjiang
    1,079
    935
    56
    88

    Table A14

    Female employment in urban units by sector and region (end of year)

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)

    Year/

    Region

    Total
    Farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery
    Mining and quarrying
    Manufac-
    turing
    Public utilities
    Construction
    Geological prospecting & water conservancy
    Transport, storage, post and telecommuni-cations
    1994
    57,991
    2,593
    2,294
    24,607
    758
    2,059
    343
    2,197
    1995
    58,890
    2,526
    2,389
    24,821
    811
    2,071
    335
    2,215
    1996
    58,833
    2,378
    2,334
    23,917
    863
    2,081
    322
    2,279
    1997
    58,248
    2,384
    2,225
    22,863
    903
    2,036
    326
    2,321
    1999
    46,134
    2,015
    1,736
    15,419
    916
    1,508
    294
    1,972
    2000
    44,113
    1,956
    1,528
    14,253
    910
    1,440
    295
    1,933
    Beijing
    1,556
    11
    5
    352
    14
    69
    4
    52
    Tianjin
    773
    03
    23
    323
    12
    31
    4
    28
    Hebei
    2,121
    35
    70
    649
    44
    65
    23
    74
    Shanxi
    1,341
    12
    105
    346
    34
    45
    8
    61
    Inner Mongolia
    1,029
    101
    83
    232
    29
    35
    10
    55
    Liaoning
    2,317
    104
    78
    812
    54
    122
    15
    108
    Jilin
    1,301
    58
    102
    370
    23
    50
    7
    68
    Heilongjiang
    2,006
    222
    193
    496
    47
    104
    14
    99
    Shanghai
    1,366
    12

    508
    16
    32
    2
    57
    Jiangsu
    2,702
    84
    50
    1,163
    34
    52
    11
    113
    Zhejiang
    1,488
    15
    5
    540
    24
    43
    4
    59
    Anhui
    1,430
    55
    72
    454
    26
    46
    12
    61
    Fujian
    1,394
    33
    17
    707
    23
    34
    3
    41
    Jiangxi
    1,081
    79
    35
    323
    32
    29
    8
    52
    Shandong
    3,161
    28
    169
    1,332
    61
    61
    12
    92
    Henan
    2,745
    32
    138
    846
    71
    75
    29
    116
    Hubei
    2,132
    169
    40
    669
    42
    63
    23
    134
    Hunan
    1,694
    129
    40
    440
    38
    42
    12
    83
    Guangdong
    3,196
    66
    14
    1,341
    59
    66
    10
    139
    Guangxi
    1,125
    65
    17
    278
    27
    26
    06
    48
    Hainan
    321
    120
    6
    35
    7
    5
    2
    12
    Chongqing
    750
    8
    24
    246
    19
    29
    3
    46
    Sichuan
    1,898
    32
    71
    552
    52
    100
    13
    84
    Guizhou
    680
    15
    23
    180
    17
    33
    4
    29
    Yunnan
    1,028
    80
    30
    217
    23
    33
    7
    52
    Tibet
    60
    2
    1
    4
    2
    3

    3
    Shaanxi
    1,208
    19
    42
    383
    26
    40
    17
    64
    Gansu
    723
    27
    23
    218
    23
    33
    11
    38
    Qinghai
    173
    9
    5
    29
    5
    10
    6
    12
    Ningxia
    236
    22
    16
    55
    7
    8
    3
    10
    Xinjiang
    1,079
    309
    35
    153
    19
    56
    11
    38

    Table A14 (continued)

    (Unit: 1,000 persons)

    Year/
    Region
    Wholesale and retail trade & catering services
    Finance and insurance
    Real estate trade
    Social services
    Health
    care,
    sport
    and
    social
    welfare
    Education,
    culture
    and arts,
    radio,
    film and television
    Scientific research and techno-
    logical services
    Government agencies, Party agencies and social organizations
    Other
    1994
    8,535
    1,045
    243
    2,131
    2,391
    5,613
    605
    2,343
    234
    1995
    8,583
    1,113
    266
    2,152
    24,775
    5,880
    614
    2,383
    256
    1996
    8,553
    1,201
    289
    2,216
    2,570
    6,221
    618
    2,586
    405
    1997
    8,412
    1,281
    304
    2,304
    2,656
    6,503
    627
    2,579
    524
    1999
    5,280
    1,404
    326
    2,115
    2,744
    6,806
    571
    2,661
    367
    2000
    4,612
    1,412
    342
    2,104
    2,782
    6,893
    579
    2,688
    385
    Beijing
    229
    37
    41
    215
    90
    217
    106
    75
    42
    Tianjin
    76
    17
    8
    40
    45
    109
    17
    30
    8
    Hebei
    236
    64
    9
    75
    121
    467
    17
    164
    9
    Shanxi
    155
    45
    5
    63
    81
    243
    15
    112
    13
    Inner Mongolia
    71
    35
    6
    38
    60
    173
    11
    81
    10
    Liaoning
    191
    79
    25
    134
    140
    310
    28
    94
    22
    Jilin
    115
    43
    10
    65
    87
    211
    15
    61
    14
    Heilongjiang
    175
    48
    14
    102
    108
    254
    15
    99
    17
    Shanghai
    185
    47
    27
    112
    100
    172
    31
    44
    22
    Jiangsu
    344
    72
    20
    107
    164
    354
    24
    88
    22
    Zhejiang
    143
    79
    13
    88
    123
    250
    13
    77
    13
    Anhui
    192
    43
    8
    63
    86
    198
    12
    92
    7
    Fujian
    85
    44
    10
    50
    60
    206
    8
    65
    8
    Jiangxi
    118
    36
    6
    34
    69
    170
    11
    74
    7
    Shandong
    342
    93
    16
    105
    189
    441
    20
    169
    30
    Henan
    345
    92
    14
    105
    167
    466
    26
    202
    21
    Hubei
    250
    59
    14
    88
    144
    274
    23
    127
    11
    Hunan
    178
    63
    9
    66
    129
    306
    19
    126
    12
    Guangdong
    315
    118
    37
    169
    200
    441
    21
    172
    28
    Guangxi
    115
    34
    7
    58
    88
    246
    12
    86
    10
    Hainan
    21
    8
    3
    22
    16
    32
    5
    25
    1
    Chongqing
    70
    28
    6
    28
    46
    130
    18
    47
    1
    Sichuan
    181
    75
    11
    68
    138
    326
    32
    154
    8
    Guizhou
    75
    22
    4
    23
    48
    125
    7
    68
    7
    Yunnan
    111
    30
    5
    50
    78
    202
    15
    89
    5
    Tibet
    3
    2

    3
    6
    12
    1
    17

    Shaanxi
    118
    38
    5
    47
    71
    210
    32
    90
    6
    Gansu
    79
    20
    3
    32
    40
    102
    10
    52
    10
    Qinghai
    16
    7
    1
    8
    14
    28
    3
    17
    2
    Ningxia
    22
    9
    1
    10
    15
    36
    2
    17
    2
    Xinjiang
    57
    23
    4
    35
    59
    184
    10
    74
    13

    Table A15

    Percentage of female employment in urban units by sector (2000)

    Item
    Total
    State-owned
    units
    Urban collective-owned units
    Other owner-ship units
    National total
    38.0
    36.4
    40.4
    42.4
    Grouped by category:




    Enterprises
    37.9
    35.3
    39.8
    42.4
    Institutions
    43.4
    43.2
    46.1
    43.9
    Organizations
    24.3
    38.2
    36.3

    Grouped by sector:




    Farming, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery
    37.9
    38.2
    27.7
    34.9
    Farming
    41.3
    41.2
    45.9
    45.1
    Forestry
    39.0
    38.9
    43.0
    28.8
    Animal husbandry
    37.4
    37.7
    32.0
    34.8
    Fishery
    29.3
    30.9
    30.0
    17.2
    Services for farming, forestry, animal
    husbandry and fishery
    28.8
    29.6
    20.1
    33.8
    Mining and quarrying
    26.1
    25.4
    36.3
    25.6
    Manufacturing
    43.2
    38.6
    48.9
    45.8
    Public utilities
    32.1
    32.3
    31.9
    30.9
    Construction
    18.5
    20.3
    17.5
    14.4
    Civil engineering
    17.5
    19.8
    15.8
    13.6
    Powerline, pipeline and equipment installation
    25.7
    24.1
    31.2
    19.5
    Buildings supply and decoration
    19.1
    19.4
    22.6
    16.3
    Geological prospecting and water conservancy
    26.8
    26.8
    28.1
    23.4
    Geological prospecting
    27.8
    27.7
    46.4
    21.9
    Water conservancy
    25.9
    25.8
    21.9
    24.8
    Transport, storage, post and telecommunications
    28.4
    27.8
    31.0
    31.5
    Railway transport
    22.9
    22.4
    52.4
    21.8
    Highway transport
    31.9
    33.0
    28.2
    31.3
    Pipeline transport
    30.4
    30.0
    39.8
    37.7
    Waterway transport
    19.5
    14.7
    28.1
    19.1
    Air transport
    32.5
    32.2
    50.4
    33.6
    Transport support and auxiliary services
    26.0
    25.6
    28.7
    28.0
    Other transport
    30.0
    30.0
    25.8
    30.1
    Storage
    34.2
    34.2
    43.7
    28.8
    Post and telecommunications
    37.3
    36.1
    50.8
    49.2
    Wholesale and retail trade & catering services
    45.7
    43.6
    45.5
    52.5
    Wholesale trade in food, beverages, tobacco
    and household goods
    41.4
    39.9
    44.1
    47.0
    Wholesale trade in energy, materials
    and electronic equipment
    36.3
    35.3
    40.7
    35.2
    Other wholesale trade
    40.4
    42.0
    39.7
    38.9
    Retail trade
    51.5
    51.2
    47.2
    60.0
    Commercial brokerages and agencies
    37.8
    39.3
    49.6
    38.4
    Catering services
    57.0
    57.0
    57.9
    57.0
    Finance and insurance
    43.2
    42.2
    42.2
    52.6
    Finance
    42.7
    42.0
    42.2
    50.8

    Table A15 (continued)

    Item

    Total

    State-
    owned
    units
    Urban collective-
    owned units
    Other
    ownership
    units
    Insurance
    46.9
    43.0
    32.8
    55.6
    Real estate trade
    34.1
    34.6
    33.9
    33.0
    Real estate development and operation
    33.5
    34.2
    32.8
    32.7
    Real estate management
    34.3
    34.5
    35.7
    32.9
    Real estate brokerages and agencies
    44.0
    42.1
    44.3
    51.5
    Social services
    43.5
    43.8
    45.3
    41.2
    Public facilities services
    41.4
    43.0
    42.9
    25.4
    Resident services
    44.3
    43.1
    43.9
    49.5
    Hotels
    55.5
    55.7
    61.6
    52.9
    Leasing services
    35.5
    38.5
    42.6
    26.8
    Tourism
    45.2
    45.9
    46.8
    43.4
    Recreational services
    50.0
    47.4
    52.6
    50.6
    Information and consultancy services
    36.0
    34.8
    35.2
    37.7
    Computer application services
    32.7
    35.0
    32.7
    31.4
    Other social services
    29.9
    26.4
    37.9
    30.5
    Health care, sport and social welfare
    57.0
    57.9
    50.6
    49.9
    Health care
    58.2
    59.0
    52.0
    59.3
    Sports
    33.0
    32.9
    51.7
    35.1
    Social welfare
    41.6
    44.4
    24.3
    51.3
    Education, culture and arts, radio, film and television
    44.0
    44.0
    45.4
    44.0
    Education
    44.4
    44.4
    45.8
    45.8
    Regular institutions of higher education
    40.0
    40.0
    41.7
    35.8
    Regular secondary schools
    40.4
    40.4
    44.9
    46.0
    Primary schools
    46.9
    47.1
    43.7
    45.1
    Culture and arts
    41.9
    41.7
    42.0
    43.0
    Radio, film and television
    35.2
    35.2
    32.2
    38.5
    Scientific research and general technological services
    33.2
    33.9
    29.8
    27.6
    Scientific research
    35.0
    35.0
    35.5
    37.4
    Natural science research
    34.9
    35.0
    35.6
    38.4
    Social science research
    36.4
    36.4
    35.3
    48.0
    Other science research
    34.9
    34.9
    35.2
    30.8
    General technological services
    31.9
    33.0
    29.6
    27.4
    Meteorology
    34.6
    34.6
    40.6
    27.7
    Seismology
    26.7
    26.7

    20.0
    Survey and mapping
    29.3
    29.3
    39.8
    23.0
    Technological supervision
    31.3
    31.8
    29.3
    17.6
    Oceanic environment
    20.0
    20.0

    14.3
    Environmental protection
    39.0
    39.7
    43.4
    29.4
    Technology application & dissemination as well as science/ technology exchange services
    34.6
    35.9
    34.4
    28.4
    Engineering design
    32.4
    32.6
    32.4
    29.1
    Other technological services
    29.3
    32.8
    25.2
    27.5
    Government agencies, Party agencies and social organizations
    24.4
    24.3
    42.7

    Government agencies
    24.2
    24.2
    32.8

    Party agencies
    21.6
    21.6
    75.0

    Other
    37.3
    36.2
    42.9
    36.7
    Enterprise management organizations
    34.4
    31.9
    41.7
    36.8

    Table A16

    Reproductive health of women of child-bearing age (1990/2000)

    Region
    Percentage of married women of child-bearing age using contraception
    Pre-natal examination rate
    Rate of new
    midwifery in
    un-hospitalized child delivery
    Rate of
    hospitalized child delivery
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    National
    90.4(95)
    83.8(97)
    69.7(92)
    89.4
    94.0*
    95.78
    50.6
    72.9
    Beijing
    89.9
    88.1
    91.1(92)
    97.6
    99.7
    100.0
    83.7
    99.6
    Tianjin
    92.3
    91.1
    90.2
    96.8
    100.0
    100.0
    63.1
    99.0
    Hebei
    90.3
    91.5

    91.2

    99.8
    53.3
    85.4
    Shanxi
    90.0
    89.5
    21.7
    89.1
    52.8
    96.3
    43.1
    58.9
    Inner Mongolia
    90.6
    93.0
    48.5(93)
    92.5
    84.9(93)
    93.8
    26.7
    70.1
    Liaoning
    90.2
    91.3
    93.5
    97.1
    99.5
    99.4
    53.9
    79.3
    Jilin
    91.4
    91.1
    86.8
    90.8
    9407
    98.4
    52.1
    81.7
    Heilongjiang
    90.9
    92.8
    36.2
    98.7
    96.8
    98.5
    43.2
    71.5
    Shanghai
    91.6
    91.1
    97.6
    99.9
    100.0
    100.0
    99.8
    100.0
    Jiangsu
    90.3
    91.9
    63.1
    94.6

    91.2
    81.3
    98.9
    Zhejiang
    92.4
    91.1
    89.8
    96.4

    95.7
    86.7
    98.7
    Anhui
    88.0
    91.9
    59.0
    85.6

    96.1
    56.0
    73.9
    Fujian
    59.5
    89.5
    93.0
    96.6
    97.0
    99.5
    48.3
    89.7
    Jiangxi
    89.4
    90.2
    88.5
    92.7

    97.5
    34.6
    74.4
    Shandong
    91.1
    90.8
    70.0
    96.5
    99.6
    99.6
    68.7
    96.8
    Henan
    88.8
    90.5
    69.3
    83.7
    93.1
    97.4
    68.8
    77.7
    Hubei
    86.7
    89.4
    89.2
    91.4
    96.0
    92.2
    38.4
    75.7
    Hunan
    89.1
    90.6
    41.7
    91.3
    31.3
    95.0
    32.4
    70.1
    Guangdong
    87.7
    88.5
    48.3
    93.3

    98.0
    52.5
    80.5
    Guangxi
    84.9
    89.5
    70.7
    90.4
    94.0
    92.6
    23.8
    59.6
    Hainan
    85.1
    86.0
    84.4
    83.3

    66.7
    78.9
    83.1
    Chongqing
    91.5
    92.3
    57.2
    92.2

    89.5
    41.3
    67.2
    Sichuan
    85.6
    92.4
    30.0
    86.8
    26.5
    87.3
    36.0
    63.9
    Guizhou
    86.0
    85.0
    87.1
    80.5
    75.7
    88.4
    19.0
    25.8
    Yunnan
    80.0
    82.0
    12.7
    85.0
    29.6
    84.2
    23.3
    48.9
    Tibet
    20.5
    71.7
    19.5
    62.3
    10.6
    62.7
    3.7
    20.1
    Shaanxi
    89.7
    90.6

    89.0
    88.8
    92.0
    47.7
    74.0
    Gansu
    86.3
    88.1

    82.1

    82.5

    55.3
    Qinghai
    81.0
    83.9
    38.0
    71.0
    68.4
    81.0
    21.3
    38.0
    Ningxia
    81.5
    90.2
    48.6
    89.8
    55.3
    95.7
    31.5
    59.9
    Xinjiang
    64.9
    82.7
    52.0
    79.0

    67.3
    44.4
    56.6

    * 1990 figure includes hospitalized child delivery.

    Table A17

    Infant, child and maternal mortality rates (1990/2000)

    Region
    Infant mortality rate (‰)
    Mortality rate of
    children under five
    years old (‰)
    Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000)
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    1990
    2000
    National
    50.2
    32.2
    61.0
    39.7
    88.9
    53.0
    Beijing
    11.7
    5.4
    13.7
    6.8
    25.0
    9.7
    Tianjin
    15.3
    9.4
    18.3
    10.6
    23.4
    18.6
    Hebei
    36.6
    22.6
    40.1
    24.1
    68.6
    54.2
    Shanxi
    39.1
    19.9
    45.4
    23.3
    131.2
    53.0
    Inner Mongolia
    57.2
    32.3
    63.8
    35.6
    147.7
    62.6
    Liaoning
    29.8
    15.9
    30.2
    18.2
    64.8
    27.8
    Jilin
    30.7
    14.5
    38.9
    15.8
    58.0
    34.7
    Heilongjiang
    45.0
    29.2
    53.9
    36.2
    59.9
    24.5
    Shanghai
    11.0
    5.1
    15.3
    6.9
    15.3
    9.6
    Jiangsu
    31.2
    11.2
    38.5
    14.6
    50.2
    28.5
    Zhejiang
    25.0
    15.6
    26.7
    17.4
    42.0
    19.6
    Anhui
    47.8
    29.0
    67.6
    34.7
    100.0
    48.4
    Fujian
    36.1
    20.1
    45.7
    24.5
    60.0
    30.7
    Jiangxi
    55.0
    34.8
    74.0
    43.3
    108.0
    50.0
    Shandong
    37.0
    18.3
    42.7
    20.5
    60.8
    25.4
    Henan
    46.5
    30.5
    56.2
    34.4
    100.2
    54.2
    Hubei
    39.1
    21.9
    50.5
    26.8
    130.0
    47.5
    Hunan
    51.5
    23.7
    63.1
    28.1
    87.4
    54.8
    Guangdong
    33.6
    16.8
    42.3
    21.7
    88.3
    31.5
    Guangxi
    61.3
    27.3
    77.2
    32.2
    143.7
    60.3
    Hainan
    42.8
    33.4
    51.1
    42.2
    66.9
    45.9
    Chongqing
    48.9
    28.8
    62.6
    41.3
    157.3
    86.1
    Sichuan
    68.4
    43.0
    89.3
    57.9
    160.1
    88.2
    Guizhou
    65.1
    38.8
    98.4
    48.8
    269.7
    141.7
    Yunnan
    53.1
    33.1
    87.3
    42.1
    191.0
    95.5
    Tibet
    91.8
    35.3
    126.7
    57.2
    715.8
    466.3
    Shaanxi
    45.0
    32.4
    55.1
    35.6
    130.8
    66.3
    Gansu
    55.3
    28.9
    68.4
    36.0
    315.9
    108.8
    Qinghai
    60.7
    41.0
    88.6
    51.9
    243.0
    142.0
    Ningxia
    49.2
    27.4
    57.6
    32.9
    123.0
    85.8
    Xinjiang
    69.0
    55.5
    96.0
    65.4
    270.0
    161.4

    Table A18

    Maternal mortality rate by region (per 100,000) (1995/2000)

    Rate in 1995
    Region
    Rank in 2000
    Region
    Rate in 2000
    16.9
    Shanghai
    1
    Shanghai
    9.6
    18.6
    Tianjin
    2
    Beijing
    9.7
    22.3
    Beijing
    3
    Tianjin
    18.3
    23.7
    Zhejiang
    4
    Zhejiang
    19.6
    31.5
    Shandong
    5
    Heilongjiang
    24.5
    36.3
    Jiangsu
    6
    Shandong
    25.4
    39.4
    Heilongjiang
    7
    Liaoning
    27.8
    40.8
    Fujian
    8
    Jiangsu
    28.3
    42.4
    Hainan
    9
    Fujian
    30.7
    44.6
    Jilin
    10
    Guangdong
    31.5
    45.6
    Liaoning
    11
    Jilin
    34.7
    45.8
    Jiangxi
    12
    Hainan
    44.3
    46.4
    Guangxi
    13
    Hubei
    47.5
    53.1
    Guangdong
    14
    Anhui
    48.4
    55.7
    Henan
    15
    Jiangxi
    50.0
    59.3
    Hunan
    16
    Shanxi
    53.0
    61.8
    Hebei
    17
    Henan
    54.2
    64.3
    Anhui
    18
    Hebei
    54.2
    78.8
    Shaanxi
    19
    Hunan
    54.8
    82.1
    Hubei
    20
    Guangxi
    60.3
    93.3
    Chongqing
    21
    Inner Mongolia
    62.6
    98.7
    Shaanxi
    22
    Shaanxi
    66.3
    108.1
    Ningxia
    23
    Ningxia
    85.8
    118.8
    Inner Mongolia
    24
    Chongqing
    86.1
    120.0
    Sichuan
    25
    Sichuan
    88.2
    141.3
    Gansu
    26
    Yunnan
    95.3
    158.2
    Guizhou
    27
    Gansu
    108.8
    191.0
    Yunnan
    28
    Qinghai
    142.0
    217.7
    Qinghai
    29
    Guizhou
    156.4
    260.0
    Xinjiang
    30
    Xinjiang
    161.4
    326.4
    Tibet
    31
    Tibet
    466.3

    Table A19

    Percentage of rural population with access to tap water, and regional rankings by percentage of rural population with latrine access as of end of 2000

    Percentage of rural population

    with latrine access
    Ranking
    Percentage of rural population
    with access to tap water
    %
    Region

    Region
    %
    44.84
    National average

    National average
    55.22
    92.67
    Shanghai
    1
    Shanghai
    99.9
    70.42
    Beijing
    2
    Beijing
    98.23
    65.20
    Guangdong
    3
    Tianjin
    83.64
    63.73
    Zhejiang
    4
    Zhejiang
    83.20
    62.03
    Fujian
    5
    Jiangsu
    74.98
    59.19
    Shandong
    6
    Hebei
    73.43
    56.25
    Hubei
    7
    Shanxi
    73.38
    55.42
    Qinghai
    8
    Fujian
    71.19
    53.62
    Henan
    9
    Guangdong
    70.30
    51.50
    Jiangxi
    10
    Xinjiang
    66.99
    49.70
    Jilin
    11
    Chongqing
    59.30
    48.61
    Hainan
    12
    Liaoning
    59.18
    45.80
    Hunan
    13
    Shandong
    57.16
    44.62
    Heilongjiang
    14
    Qinghai
    55.22
    41.41
    Guangxi
    15
    Yunnan
    54.29
    40.40
    Liaoning
    16
    Hubei
    54.00
    40.14
    Anhui
    17
    Heilongjiang
    49.96
    39.52
    Yunnan
    18
    Hainan
    49.89
    37.04
    Shaanxi
    19
    Henan
    48.94
    35.87
    Chongqing
    20
    Guangxi
    47.55
    35.50
    Gansu
    21
    Hunan
    45.99
    34.42
    Hebei
    22
    Guizhou
    43.57
    32.55
    Shanxi
    23
    Sichuan
    39.21
    30.64
    Xinjiang
    24
    Jiangxi
    38.22
    29.80
    Inner Mongolia
    25
    Anhui
    36.83
    29.49
    Jiangsu
    26
    Shaanxi
    35.29
    27.23
    Tianjin
    27
    Jilin
    35.26
    26.84
    Sichuan
    28
    Gansu
    32.69
    21.77
    Ningxia
    29
    Inner Mongolia
    30.81
    10.43
    Guizhou
    30
    Ningxia
    29.64

    Note: No data is available for Tibet.


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