Italy - Combined fourth and fifth periodic reports of States parties [2004] UNCEDAWSPR 9; CEDAW/C/ITA/4-5 (12 February 2004)

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Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

* The present report is being issued without formal editing. For the initial report submitted by the Government of Italy, see CEDAW/C/5/Add.62, considered by the Committee at its tenth session. For the second periodic report submitted by the Government of Italy, see CEDAW/C/ITA/2, considered by the Committee at its seventeenth session. For the third periodic report submitted by the Government of Italy, see CEDAW/C/ITA/3, considered by the Committee at its seventeenth session.

3.6 Measures to Reconcile Work and Family Life: the National Plan for Kindergartens

CHAPTER II: THE WOMEN’S ACCESS TO POLITICS
1. The Shortage of Women in Politics

CHAPTER III: EDUCATION

4. Female Entrepreneurship: Activites Carried Out and Guidelines for Future Actions

CHAPTER V: WOMEN AND HEALTH

8.1 The Path to Childbirth – Caesarian Sections: Situation, Trends and Regional Incidence

CHAPTER VI: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND MINORS

5. Enactment at the National Level of Law 269/98 against Sexual Exploitation of Minors (as of December 2001)

6. Enactment at the National Level of Law 269/98 against Sexual Exploitation of Minors (after December 2001)

CONCLUSIONS
STATISTICAL APPENDIX

3.6 Measures to Reconcile Work and Family Life: the National Plan for Kindergartens

The document hereto consolidates Italy’s fourth and fifth reports to the CEDAW, in order for it to assess the degree of fulfilment of obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (C.E.D.A.W.)^[1]

When this government took office, in June 2002, it launched a program of broad reforms affecting all sectors of political, economic and social public life; a program which, in part, needs be implemented gradually due to the negative circumstances registered world-wide after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attack.

Nevertheless, in 2002, there was a significant increase in young women who entered the labour market (about 300,000 last year); furthermore, the 2002 data and future gross domestic product (GDP) forecasts show a growth rate equal to or even above 0.4%, which leads us to be cautiously optimistic about economic recovery.

In this area, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities has based its activity on a modern concept of equal opportunity which involves careful monitoring and combating not only all forms of inequality between men and women, but also all forms of discrimination based on race, skin colour, ethnic and social origin, genetic features, language or religion, personal beliefs, political opinions, belonging to an ethnic minority, wealth, birth, handicap, age and sexual preferences.

The range of tasks delegated to the Ministry for Equal Opportunities by decree of the President of the Council of Ministers on February 14, 2002, confirms this cross-cutting approach, because it broadens the scope of the Ministry’s activities well beyond just gender equality, giving the Minister a driving and co-ordinating role in national policies in particularly sensitive areas (such as childhood, immigration, the adoption of foreign children), which are characterised by hardship, as well as providing protection and guarantees against all forms of discrimination, whether direct or indirect.

The result is a broader concept of the scope of activity of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, which has adjusted its programs and initiatives, taking into account the international scenario and the debate which, also in the United Nations, is leading towards an update of the conclusions of the Beijing Conference of 1995.

The major declaration on equal opportunities for everybody sets a political priority not only for the Minister’s activities, but for the whole government. In fact, among the objectives to be achieved during this legislature, as described in the government program, six have been added (representation of women in elective assemblies, measures against trafficking in human beings, fighting paedophilia, reforming equal opportunities bodies, elimination of discrimination, the National Plan for kindergartens). Each of these deals with a particular aspect of elimination of discrimination against women, and is therefore a significant step towards the implementation of the 1979 Convention on Discrimination against Women.

A brief illustration of the policies and activities carried out by the Ministry for Equal Opportunities will clearly demonstrate what has been achieved so far.

As shown in the chapter on the government programme dedicated to equal opportunities, the main items are the following.

The bill modifying Article 51 of Italy’s Constitution, which introduces the principle of equality in access to political offices, has been passed.

Thanks to the new text of Article 51, for the first time the concept of equal opportunities has entered into the Constitution, thus compelling the Republic to foster “equal opportunities for men and women by means of appropriate provisions”. It states the rights of all citizens, on an equality basis, to access public offices and elective appointments. Once the law is in force, it will only be a question of identifying the suitable regulatory and administrative instruments to make it fully effective (see subchapter 2).

A government bill has been presented to Parliament, proposing effective provisions to fight and eliminate crimes linked to the forced immigration of human beings and their reduction to slavery or servitude. The objective is to fight the phenomenon of the modern “slave trade”, whose victims are frequently women. In particular, the provision, which has already been approved by the Chamber of Deputies, and is currently under examination by the Senate, introduces a separate type of crime with appropriate sanctions, and provides victims with assistance and protection.

In this context, it is worth pointing out that a program of special assistance is being set up to give victims adequate housing, nourishment and medical assistance, which integrates the social protection programmes in accordance with article 18 of the Consolidating Act 286/98, managed by the Ministry for Equal Opportunities (see Chapter VI for details).

The Interministerial Committee of Co-ordination and Fight against Paedophilia (acronymed as ‘CICLOPE’) has been set up, composed of representatives from eleven Ministries (Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Health, Productive Activities, Communications, Justice, Technology and Innovation, Education, Public Works, EU Policies, Parliamentary Relations), and it is in charge of identifying and activating means of fighting every form of sexual exploitation of minors of both sexes.

The above Committee has launched the National Plan to fight and prevent paedophilia, which set out the main actions to be taken during 2003 - inter alia, the establishment of an observatory to monitor the phenomenon, and an anti-paedophilia phone line: ‘114’. A working group has also been set up to adapt existing regulations to the increase which unfortunately paedophilia has experienced in recent years, with particular reference to paedophilia on-line.

Alongside the government, the National Commission for equal opportunities, which was set up under the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, by law no. 164 of June 2, 1990, is working on these issues.

This organ has organised numerous conferences, which have contributed to the dissemination of awareness of women’s rights, and has also organised a series of study groups on many of the subjects that the Ministry for Equal Opportunities is working on.

A working group has been set up under delegated power issued by the Parliament (Article 13, Law no. 137/2002), composed of representatives of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, and the authorities involved in the restructuring of the Government structure, which is in charge of examining institutional and normative problems related to the reorganisation of equal opportunities bodies at a national level.

Over time, especially during the period before the Ministry for Equal Opportunities was established (1996), an overlapping of structures in equal opportunities bodies has frequently occurred; so the aim of the reform is to rationalise them, so as to prevent overlapping and duplication of competencies and limit public spending. This reform is well underway.

As regards the general activity in the fight against discrimination and in order to ensure the full implementation of the policies on equal opportunities for men and women, various Study groups have been set up. These groups, composed of highly qualified experts, are in charge of working out suitable operative strategies to guarantee equal opportunities, to be translated into acts, and normative and administrative provisions.

The group has the task of monitoring any problems that women may have in participating in sports, at an amateur as well as a professional level. This has been done through a questionnaire, which has been sent to all sports leagues. There will also be a series of meetings and hearings with the various associations and sports leagues.

In the first phase the group is working on the following issues: 1) health care for women with particular reference to problems related to pregnancy and delivery; 2) female anxiety and depression; 3) care of the elderly within the family; 4) beauty care.

This study group, set up by decree by the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, together with the Minister for Communications, is in charge of analysing: 1) the level of women present in the communications sector, in the press, as well as on television and radio, with particular attention to advertising, institutional, political and business communications; identifying roles and responsibilities; 2) how women are represented by the mass media. In order to carry out a survey on how women are represented by the mass media, the National Commission for Equality has drawn up guidelines which set out some basic principles that should be followed in order to correctly represent and foster a positive image of women.

The guidelines set the standards the Commission will comply with throughout the survey.

The Commission has also drawn up a series of initiatives to obtain data related to the presence of women in the press and on television and radio, from the main agencies, as well as launching a system of monitoring television broadcasts, particularly in the information, entertainment, fiction and advertising sectors.

This group is examining women who operate in the various sectors of Italian culture - from literature and theatre to cinema, from music to dance - in order to deepen our knowledge of women’s artistic and cultural production. To do this, the group is monitoring the presence of women in the various artistic sectors, and examining the normative and institutional problems which could impede women’s full realisation, with the support of a documentation centre for all legislative acts and regulations regarding this sector.

This group is examining the institutional and normative problems which could lead to gender discrimination; at present it is studying the national regulatory framework and carrying out a comparative study with other European Union countries.

At the same time, the group is investigating family problems linked to sexuality, levels of social integration, in its broadest sense, of homosexuals, as well as awareness and dissemination of information on AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases.

These issues are also partly being dealt with, as they touch upon questions related to work, by the legislative office which is implementing EU directive no. 2000/78, which lays down a general framework for equality of treatment in employment and working conditions. The implementation will prohibit discrimination at work for reasons related to religion, personal beliefs, handicap, age and sexual preferences, and is to be enforced by prompt and effective legal action, restoring workers’ rights and providing for compensation.

An office is being set up to monitor and guarantee equality of treatment, under directive 2000/43/CE of the Council of June 29, 2002, provided in attachment B of National Community Law no. 39/2002, which lays down the principle of equal treatment between people, regardless of race and ethnic origin. A new Office for the Control and Guarantee of Equal Treatment will be created within the Ministry for Equal Opportunities in 2003 (more on this in subparagraph 4).

3.6 Measures to Reconcile Work and Family Life: the National Program for Kindergartens

One of the Equal Opportunities Ministry’s main objectives is to reconcile the multiple roles of women in the family and at work, through a series of instruments and services.

A national plan for nursery schools has been drawn up, which provides working women with immediately available services, allowing them to combine their family life with a professional life. The result is a bill, currently under examination by the Committee of Social Affairs in the Chamber of Deputies (AC2020), which systematically regulates the whole matter, providing for the creation of day nurseries, as well as micro-nurseries in the work place. This bill updates a 1971 law, which does not suit a social context which has changed due to the enormous increase in female presence in the labour market, the bill sets out to provide concrete support for families. While respecting the competencies of the local authorities, this provision provides the framework law which redefines the whole system of services for early childhood, delineating the basic services that will be the responsibility of the regions and local authorities. The institution of micro-nurseries is particularly important because they are flexible, small, and easy to set up in public and private working places, thus allowing parents, and in particular women, to pursue their professional careers without undue worry. To achieve this in the near future, article 70 of Budget Law no. 448/2001 and article 91 of Budget Law no. 289/2002, set up a fund to create nurseries and micro-nurseries in work places. In 2003, 10m Euro was allocated to employers who had taken steps in this direction.

As early as October 2002, the President of the Council of Ministers inaugurated the first micro-crèche in the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, which hosts children of employees and collaborators (aged three months to three years).

The government’s commitment to the fight against discrimination is also born out by two commitments recently endorsed by the Council of Ministers.

The first is a governmental bill presented to Parliament to fight prostitution, which often represents the highest level of exploitation of women.

In Italy, in fact, due to the increase in immigration and the involvement of organised crime in exploiting prostitution, there has not only been an increase in people who voluntarily take up prostitution, but especially in organised crime which exploits the prostitution of others.

The bill prohibits prostitution in public places or places open to the public, because this is where the worst cases of criminal sexual exploitation thrive.

Approximately 25,000 foreign prostitutes have been brought to Italy over the past few years, and forced to prostitute themselves under threat of violence from their exploiters.

Introducing the ban on prostitution in public places, or places open to the public, into our Criminal Code, with sanctions that will be applied to the prostitute as well as to the client, aims to disrupt the systematic meeting of supply and demand in the flourishing market of sex for payment.

However, in consideration of the strong link between prostitution on the streets and the phenomenon of trafficking in human beings (see sub chapter VI), in order to avoid criminalising people who have already been victims of serious violence, a specific case of immunity from punishment is provided, which excludes sanctions against those who can prove that they have been forced into prostitution against their will.

Furthermore, with respect to these cases the government has decided to increase the funding of programs of social protection for those who intend to leave the prostitution racket. The bill set forth the annual budget for social protection programs, pursuant to the application of article 18 of the code on immigration, approved with legislative decree 286/1998, which has already enabled many victims of the slave trade to escape from the conditioning and violence of criminal organisations dedicated to the exploitation of prostitution, also with the voluntary collaboration of the law enforcement agencies.

Ten million Euros per year for the years 2003, 2004 and 2005 will be allocated for the social rehabilitation of victims, which accounts for an increase of 5,580,000 Euros.

In a broad perspective, in order to stem prostitution, which touches upon many sensitive areas, the government has not opted for regulation, because the newly introduced prohibition does not mean the reopening of brothels or eros centers, nor for abolition, because prostitution is not forbidden inside a house which is being used legitimately. Prostitution is therefore confined - especially for those who voluntarily exercise prostitution - to the private sphere. With regards to this, two other cases which are not punishable have been introduced: for people who practice prostitution and provide reciprocal assistance without making a profit, and for those who provide housing where prostitution is exercised, provided they do not make undue profits.

This seemed a reasonable attempt, now under examination in Parliament, to eradicate prostitution in accordance with the commitments taken on under the 1950 UN Convention of, ratified by Law 1173 of 23 November 1966, in which prostitution and the related phenomenon of trafficking in human beings, are condemned as incompatible with the dignity and values of the human person.

The second governmental commitment regards the response from the Ministry for Equal Opportunities to prompting from EU legislation.

First, the Minister requested and obtained the transposition of EU Directive 2002/73 into Community Law in 2003, in order to accelerate the drafting of the relevant Legislative Decree for implementation, whereas the EU had set the deadline for October 2005.

This directive introduces significant novelties to the issue of equal treatment between men and women in terms of job access, vocational training, career advancement, and employment conditions.

It is an issue which is very dear to EU legislation. Equality between men and women is, in fact, a fundamental principle set out in articles 2 and 3 of the European Union Treaty, as well as being dealt with in its substantial body of laws. Equality is considered a primary objective of the community, and it is committed to applying gender mainstreaming to all activities.

With the approval of the Community Bill of 2003, the Government has taken concrete steps to implement the directive. Where necessary legislation has been modified: law no.125/1991 was modified by decree law no. 196/2000, which introduced so called positive action into the field of employment and instituted an ad-hoc official, the "equality advisor", to defend female workers, who operate at a provincial, regional and national level (see sub chapter IV). This is a very advanced norm which deals with women who have been prejudiced by discriminatory behaviour in the work place, but it needs further updating.

The criteria set out to implement the aforementioned directive (article 16 of Community Bill, 2003), as reported in the normative implementation provision approved by the Council of Ministers, are the following:

With respect to the previous norms, the main novelty is the introduction of a specific norm to combat sexual harassment in the work place.

The Ministry for Equal Opportunities has also set up a study group, "Women and work" (under ministerial decree on 1 July 2002), which is examining primary and secondary legislature, so as to assess, during the implementation phase, the effectiveness of the current measures to combat gender discrimination in the work place. The study, which is already underway, monitors the legal instruments provided to safeguard women with regards to: 1) access to the labour market; 2) obtaining different types of flexible contracts; 3) vocational training and retraining, specialisation, and remuneration; 4) the adequacy of the existing instruments to defend women in case of sexual harassment in the work place, with a view to elaborating new proposals in line with European measures; 5) problems related to running the household; 6) measures which will allow working women to reconcile their work schedule with their family life.

CHAPTER II: THE WOMEN’S ACCESS TO POLITICS

The low level of female participation in politics is undeniable (see table 10.4). In fact, the last elections registered even fewer women elected to Parliament than the already low previous percentage.This is socially alarming, as it bears witness to a drifting apart of politics and society. Another gap is evident in those areas where there is a large majority of women, with high levels of education and professional qualifications in the electorate, who are nevertheless only marginally represented in elective assemblies.

Despite the fact that women have distinguished themselves for their commitment and ability in the most important sectors of economic and social life, they are still at a disadvantage compared to men, and are not accorded due recognition.

The Ministry for Equal Opportunities has been pursuing the issue of equality for women concretely, not just by announcing measures which are then not applied. Its activities, throughout the four year period under consideration here, have affected all aspects of women’s lives. It is important to emphasise that the fundamental objective is not to homogenise women to men’s standards, but to bring out the women’s differences and specific characteristics, pillars of our society. Well aware of such differences, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities intends to help women carry out their work, allowing them gradually to accede to roles which have for too long been exclusively male.

The Ministry for Equal Opportunities is committed to identifying the regulatory and administrative instruments which will enable women to play a primary role in politics. It is undeniable that the shortage of women in democratic institutions confirms the inadequate balance of representation in elective organs. It is therefore necessary to take more effective measures.

Tab. 10.4 -	Senators and deputies of XIV legislature, Presidents of Regional and Provincial Governments to 31^st March 2003 by gender.

	SENATE		CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES		REGIONS		*PROVINCES*
	ab. value	%	ab. value	%	ab. value	%	ab. value	%

Men	290	92.1	546	88.5	19	95.0	102	96.2
Women	25	7.9	71	11.5	1	5.0	4	3.8
Total	315	100.0	617	100.0	20	100.0	106	100.0


Source: Ministry of the Interior

The shortage of female representatives in the political arena is mainly due to three factors which are deeply rooted in Italian culture.

The first is linked to the fact that women are generally depicted as weak, needing protection; a figure which causes disaffection among women themselves, unfit for the environment where power is exercised.

The second concerns an intrinsic feature of Italy’s ruling class, which tends to represent and reproduce itself, and so tends to come over as inward looking, because it does not fulfil its role through a vital and open relationship with civil society.

Whereas the first two factors are grounded in Italian culture, the third has strong political connotations. Today, there are still numerous obstacles to women wishing to take part in political life, due to the difficulty of reconciling the female role in politics and work, with family life. It is interesting to note that there is a greater female presence in the political institutions of regional and local authorities, than at the national level, mainly because the more restricted geographical area of local politics is more compatible with women’s multiple roles.

It is on this last point that it is important to intervene more effectively because the lack of women in democratic institutions is a sign of political decline.

Unfortunately, today, women are weighed down by a much longer working day than the European average, and an ever increasing workload, due to the demands of society, business and city life. It is a question of identifying suitable instruments and forms of organisation to give freer rein to women’s true potential and encourage them to play a more prominent role, also in politics.

As to objectives achieved, it is necessary to make a distinction between the structural organisation of local authorities and that of the State.

With regards to the former, two laws revising the constitution have recently been enacted (2/2001 and 3/2001), and have introduced important principles into regional and local government programs. Both require regions with a special statute and those with an ordinary statute to adopt laws to remove any obstacle to full equality between the sexes, and to promote equality of access between men and women to elective office.

These are provisions which will certainly determine significant changes in the current electoral legislation in the regions, especially with regards to elective bodies of Regional and local authorities. Some Regions have already put these reforms into effect.

As regards state organisation, in 2001, only a few months after the new government took office, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities had a government-sponsored Constitutional Bill approved, which modifies the current version of article 51 of the Constitution, with respect to access to public office and other elective appointments. This provision had long been awaited, and had already been prepared by the previous government, but it never saw the light due to the imminent end of the legislature’s mandate.

The text, has been approved by the Parliament and received broad cross-party consensus.

Being an amendment to the Constitution, the procedure has been quite long and has required two passages through both houses of Parliament, with an interval of at least three months between each one. The constitutional principle that emanates from the new formulation of article 51, requires the Republic to promote “equal rights between men and women by means of appropriate provisions” declaring the rights of all citizens of both sexes to accede, under legal and effective conditions of equality, to public office and elective appointments.

Notwithstanding the Ministry for Equal Opportunities has been in existence since 1996, this is the first time that the concept of equal opportunities has been dealt with in the Constitution. From this point of view, this Constitutional provision is unprecedented in Italy and throughout Europe, apart from France.

It is evident that the new text of article 51 of the Constitution only introduces a fundamental principle, but that in order to implement it, further provisions are needed i.e. legislative and regulatory initiatives which provide the necessary instruments to ensure that the principle becomes effective. Different types of positive action must be defined in order to put into effect, on a political as well as a social level, formal equality between citizens regardless of sex, in full awareness that de iure equality of rights does not necessarily correspond to de facto equality.

The debate over which instruments would be most effective is still ongoing and has not yet been completed.

Despite Constitutional Court ruling 422/1995, which declared unconstitutional electoral laws which reserve a minimum quota for women in the candidate lists, the question is still very controversial.

Apart from arguments adopted by the Court based on a sort of equivalence between the requisites for candidacy (linked to sex) and being elected, it is advisable to have available instruments that provide not so much a “protective cage” for women to confront excessive male power, but rather to create equality of conditions of access, especially to electoral competitions.

It is worth reaffirming that it is necessary to move on from a formal conception of equal opportunities which is mostly protective, to a more substantial and developed conception aimed at laying down the basis to guarantee the conditions which allow the full expression of the female personality in all its dimensions, including the political one.

An example of “good practice” in this sense is law 157/99 relative to reimbursement of electoral expenses, which, under article 3, obliges political parties to allocate at least five percent of the refund to initiatives which favour the active participation of women in politics. Besides increasing this percentage, a good incentive would be to introduce an increase in the electoral reimbursement in proportion to the number of female candidates elected to each party.

Other initiatives of this kind could be making credit access easier for female applicants who often have to face electoral campaigns with inadequate financial means, or facilitating women’s access to the media, or even setting up courses to raise women’s political awareness. With regards to this last point, it is worth noting the institution of several schools of politics such as the “Emily” School in Rome (linked to the American and British Emily’ List), the Anna Arendt School of Politics in Bologna and others aimed at bringing women closer to the world of politics.

Much can also be done by the political parties themselves, due to their constitutional purpose of “contributing to determine the political life of the country through democratic means”. They are free to determine regulations or statutes aimed at guaranteeing female representation, as it happens in Belgium or in Sweden, where the system of alternation between men and women is used when formulating lists.

In order to assess the feasibility of these and other positive actions, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities has set up a study group to address the question of a more balanced representation in elective assemblies, as well as a French-Italian contact group to formulate proposals for legislative or regulatory initiatives. These initiatives, however, are almost always interdisciplinary and therefore require the competence of different administrations, and a collective commitment on the part of the government.

CHAPTER III: EDUCATION

Modern Italian women are versatile and dynamic. They are the protagonists of change. It may be because they are more dedicated to cultural activities than men are, but they achieve better results in their studies and manage to choose a more flexible life style, despite the fact that their lives are more complex than men’s.

As a result, the model “housewife-wife-mother” is in decline in all age groups and all parts of the country, while there is an ever greater variety of roles, new vocational options, new jobs and new realities.

Over the past decade, there has been a marked tendency of Italian women to continue their studies, especially at higher levels. The percentage of girls between the age of 14 and 18 enrolled in high school rose by 7% relative to the percentage in 1950/51, to a total of 87% in 2000/01; while the percentage of boys increased by 12%, to 85.2%. In 1950/51, female university students were only 2% of all 19 to 25 year olds, compared to 6% of males in the same age range. In 2000/2001 female university students were 38.1% of all 19 to 23 year olds, compared with only 29.3% of male students.

There are also major changes in vocational choice. Between 1950/51 and 2000/2001, the percentage of female students frequenting technical and professional institutes has doubled – even though they remain a minority – going from about 20% to 40%. In all other vocational training sectors there are more females, with significant peaks in teacher training colleges and the classical high school. This tendency is also manifest in universities , where the distribution of enrolment tends to even out also in faculties and degree courses which have traditionally been almost exclusively male. As a further confirmation of the superior educational achievements of women: out of one thousand women with a middle school diploma, 749 achieve their secondary school diploma, whereas among boys only 623 do. More women enrol in university that men, and they drop out less frequently. At the end of their studies, out of one thousand women with a secondary school diploma, 228 graduate; among men only 150 do. (see tables 1 to 5).

Level		1999	*2000 ()**	2001	2002
Level		1999	*2000 ()**	2001	()**
	MF	1,588,020	915,011	936,018	935,778
Maternal School	F	765,426	441,035	492,057	451,045
	F vs M%	48.2	48.2	48.3	48.2
Primary	MF	2,820,919	2,570,064	2,559,053	2,528,707
School	F	1,362,504	1,241,341	1,236,023	1,221,365
	F vs M%	48.3	48.3	48.3	48.3
	MF	1,809,059	1,686,408	1,684,555	1,699,086
Secondary	F	855,685	797,671	813,640	803,668
School	F vs M%	47.3	47.3	47.4	47.3
	MF	2,597,449	2,419,409	2,382,154	2,381,918
High School	F	1,290,932	1,202,446	1,150,580	1,181,431
	F vs M%	49.7	49.7	49.6	49.6
TOTAL	MF	8,815,447	7,590,892	7,561,780	7,544,489
	F	*4,274,547*	*3,682,493*	*3,659,902*	3,658,445
	F vs M%	48.5	48.5	48.4	48.5

(*) Private school students not included in this census since schoolyear 1999-2000

Chart 2. Non-Italian citizen students by gender and school level (Year 2002)

Chart 3. Number of female students on the total of non-Italian citizen students by geopolitical region (2002-2003)

Chart 4. High school students distribution by gender and type of school (2001-2002)

A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I
High School by Type of Studies	Students enrolled	MF	M Students	M	M	F Students	F	F
	#	%	#	% D on B	% on col. D total	#	% G on B	% on col. G total
HS for Classical studies	232,607	9.77	73350	31.53	6.11	159257	68.47	13.48
HS for Scientific studies	459,352	19.28	224011	48.77	18.66	235341	51.23	19.92
Modern Language School	19,198	0.81	3722	19.38	0.31	15477	80.62	1.31
Teachers’ training school	180,490	7.58	27731	15.36	2.31	152759	84.64	12.93
Technical school	918,544	38.56	571912	62.26	47.64	346632	37.74	29.34
Professional School	485,967	20.40	270710	55.71	22.55	215257	44.29	18.22
Arts School	30,637	1.29	9844	32.13	0.82	20793	67.87	1.76
Institute of Arts	55,123	2.31	19208	34.85	1.60	35916	65.15	3.04

TOTAL	2,381,918		1,200,487		100	1,181,431		100

Chart 5. Students passing and failing year-end exams, by gender, type of school and school year

Type of school	Students passing year-end exams out of 100 examined		Students failing year-end exams out of 100 attending
	Male	Female	Male	Female
Primary School	99.11	99.51	0.41	0.27
Secondary school	94.01	97.29	4.84	2.20
1^st year	92.14	96,68	6.68	2.71
2^nd year	94.18	97.44	4.50	2.04
3^rd year	95.90	97.77	3.25	1.85
High School	82.27	89.42	7.78	4.59
1^st year.	77.65	85.08	9.67	6.97
2^nd year	84.00	90.54	8.10	4.88
3^rd year	83.38	90.35	8.94	5.02
4^th year	85.62	92.88	7.77	3.67
5^th year	=	=	2.95	1.47

The issue of equal opportunities for men and women has been addressed by the Ministry of Education in two ways.

The first consists of institutional gender mainstreaming provisions which are carried out under the general strategies of the educational system. Under this heading there are:

In conclusion, due to the large number of immigrant families settling down in Italy, the Italian school system has contributed substantially to the issue of integration and equal opportunities. The arrival of many foreign pupils, male and female, has put new demands on our schools in terms of care, flexibility and consideration of the diversity and the rights of every child to be educated, while respecting their differences.

The Italian school model that foreign students are presented with, is not just a symptomatic response to the new demands brought about by immigration. It is:

careful to value the culture and native language of foreign students, the issue of gender equality is also dealt with by our institutional system of education.

These initiatives, launched in 2000, and already planned until 2004, are being carried out in the south of Italy. Their aim is to:

1) promote the specific role that teachers play with regards to gender and equal opportunities;

2) support innovative strategies in secondary and high schools, aimed at orienting a greater number of female students towards business, as well as scientific and technological subjects;

These initiatives include general courses of accompaniment (such as baby sitting) for women with economic or family problems. These programs have set up about 1,200 projects, involving 25,000 girls and women, which has cost approximately 50 million Euro so far.

Among the initiatives regarding education, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities has been directly responsible for:

This joint project was promoted by the Ministry for Equal Opportunities with the Ministry of Education, the Italian Publishing Association and the Institute of Educational Research CISEM; in partnership with the Comisao para a igualidade e para os dereitos das mulheres of Portugal and the Federacion de gremios de editores de Espana. It was co-financed by the European Union under Program IV on medium term community action for equal opportunities for women and men (1996-2000), and had as its principle objective the formulation of a Code of self-regulation for schoolbook publishers. Based on studies conducted by women over the past twenty years, and as each publisher sees fit, this Code will guarantee equal representation of both sexes in schoolbooks, as protagonists of cultural paths and experiences that characterise today’s world and the accumulation of knowledge.

CHAPTER IV: LABOUR MARKET

4. Female Entrepreneurship: Activities Carried Out and Guidelines for Future Actions

The rising female presence in the labour market is one of the most significant transformations involving the employment structure and participation to labour over the last few years. All main labour market indicators show strongly positive trends of female participation.

Women have taken up 66% of newly created jobs between 1998 and 2001, outperforming men in employment growth (respectively +9.7% for women and + 2.8% for men). The spread rate is 3.8% for women as opposed to 1.9% for men. Women’s employment rate – calculated on the group aged 15 to 64 – has reached an average of 41.1% in 2001.

The employment reprise over the last few years has opened increasingly wide spaces for women entering the labour market, even for traditionally underrepresented categories such as married women, women re-entering the labour market after maternal leave or after forced absence periods.

The rate of activity (age group 15 to 64) has increased by 1.7 % between 1998 and 2001 from 58.7 % to 60,4%.

In spite of the evident steps ahead, the Mezzogiorno area sings out of pitch. Here the female employment quota detected in 2001 is still as low as 26 %, though steadily growing since the late 1990s.

The employment rate as a whole has reached 54.6%, still lagging behind other European partners; though it has risen by 4% since 1995, it remains 9% under the average rate in Europe, and well over 15% lower than the target that the European Union has set for 2010. The female component has increased by almost 6% (over 41% as a whole) since 1995, though here the gap with the rest of the Union’s current and desirable levels gapes even wider.

Employment rate is closely related to education. Whereas graduated women in the middle age groups reach high occupational levels (almost 90% of women with a university degree are employed at 40 to 44), the rate of employed women with poor education – primary school or no qualification – is constantly lower than 30%.

An employment distribution map by macrosector of economic activity would highlight that female participation is concentrated mainly in the services sector, much more than their male counterparts. Women’s presence is still concentrated in typically “female” sectors, accounting for 53.4% in public, social and personal services, and for as much as 66.4% in education. Sectors with strong male prevalence are information technology (where women account for as low as 30.4%), transportations (15.2%), building and constructions (6%).

In general, access to top jobs is extremely difficult for women, even in those sectors where female presence is higher than average. An employment distribution map by professional position shows a strong underrepresentation of women at top levels and an overrepresentation in positions requiring lower qualifications. For instance, women’s ratio of entrepreneurs and executives is 2.2% as opposed to men’s 5.2%. Whereas women can overcome access barriers thanks to their better preparation and specialisation, professional growth hindrances (both in the public and private sector) continue to stand tall. It is also worth underlining that wide pay gaps still exist and institutional estimates (from sources such as CNEL and the Bank of Italy) agree that wage gaps range from 20% to 25%.

In the whole employment scenario, women’s part-time quota is far higher than men’s. Whereas part-time schemes of various sorts have contributed to increasing female representation on the labour market, favouring reconciliation of work and family commitments, they tend to bear negatively on the women’s working conditions, qualifications and professional development. As a matter of fact, part-time work is not applied to top level, or highly qualified, well-paid jobs. Moreover, part-time is often not an option, but rather the only chance for women of entering the labour market.

Women’s difficulties of obtaining an adequate placement on the labour market are by no means due to low education.

Women have reached the same levels of education as men – and higher, in some cases. The level of education achieved by women aged up to 39 is higher than their male counterparts; the widest gap is recorded in the age group 20 to 24, where over 70% of women are high school graduates, as opposed to men’s 63% (see chapter I).

The lack of social infrastructures for reconciling work and family commitments is undoubtedly one of the most relevant causes of the women’s difficulties in entering the labour market. There is a severe shortage – especially in the Southern regions – of kindergartens and children and elderly care services.

Due to their twofold role of mothers and workers, women endure the multiple workload of their professional, family and care commitments.

The efforts of the government in terms of labour policy actions in these last few years have focused on the principle of mainstreaming and on adopting a gender perspective in all choices, policies and actions promoted by the State at all administrative levels. Equality policies have been targeted on substantial equality and on potential actions to fight any form of discrimination/segregation, no longer merely addressing women’s problems.

The new concept of Equal Opportunities has been extensively dealt with in par. 2 of chapter 1.

The framework of national equal opportunities policies encompasses provisions to promote positive actions in the fields of equality, female entrepreneurship, support to motherhood, work organisation, the system of actions and social labour policies.

Many provisions set forth over the last four years have both a direct and an indirect equality impact.

The most significant female targeted policy actions are: the Set of Rules for the Streamlining of the Process of Actions in favour of Female Entrepreneurship, issued in July 2000; the Legislative Decree no. 196 of 23^rd May, that contains the new rules for equality advisors as well as provisions in terms of policy actions; Law no. 53/2000 that provides for the support to motherhood and fatherhood, the right to care and continuous training and the coordination of urban times; the Unified Text no. 151 of March 2001, collecting all law provisions on protection and support of motherhood and fatherhood.

Plus, many social benefits have been provided by the Financial Laws of the years 1999, 2000 and 2001, respectively for the extension of the maternity indemnification to mothers with no access to any other sort of economic support to motherhood, family cheques and illness allowance to freelance workers coordinated by an employer, the amount of the maternity allowance raised to monthly ITL 500,000 for women not benefiting from maternity indemnification and tax relief, and paid leaves of up to two years for parents of handicapped children.

Most noteworthy indirect impact equality provisions (i.e., dealing with general purpose topics and having positive effects on gender relations) issued during the three-year period 1998-2001 include the introduction of telework in the public service (to be resorted to, inter alia, in the case of parents who need to look after children aged less than 8); incentives to self-entrepreneurship and self-employment, plus facilities to businesses with female prevalence and the obligation for all local and national administrations to define tools that grant easier access for female-run enterprises to public financial aid.

The latter two provisions are meant to promote substantial equality and equal opportunities to men and women in economic and entrepreneurial activities. In particular, their goal is the professional training and enhancing the professionalism of female entrepreneurs, providing facilities to businesses with prevalent female participation.

Also worth mentioning is the transposition of the Decisions of the EC Court of Justice on night work in the 1998 Community Legislation and in the Delegated Law 532 of November 1999.

These provisions contain an implied warranty for women, in that they reaffirm the rules banning night work for mothers, from pregnancy until the child’s first birthday. Moreover, the employer (male or female) is not obliged to accept nightshifts if he or she has children under three years of age, is the only parent of children aged less than twelve years of age, or lives together with a disabled person.

Given their particular relevance, two of the above listed provisions deserve a closer observation: Delegated Law no. 196/2000 and Law no. 53/2000.

3.1 The New Functional Profile of Equality Advisors. Delegated Law no. 196/2000.

The most significant equality policy has been established by Law 125/91 on positive actions, introducing in the Italian legislation specific actions aimed at promoting female employment and achieving substantial gender equality in the workplace. The above implies enhancing the role and functions of equality advisors, laid down by Delegated Law no. 196/2000, that in turns integrates the framework of positive actions in terms of goals and tools, instruments and financial means.

Furthermore, the thorough implementation of Law 125 is not only connected to the activity of equality advisors, but rather to a broader reference framework determined by the administrative decentralisation of active labour, training and education policies. The devolution to Regions and Local Entities will strengthen equality positive actions for labour policies and employment services, as well as for the decision making on local development issues. The Decree lays down that equality advisors collaborate with Labour Councillors of the Local Entities and with locally active equality organisations and that they be members of local equality commissions.

Equality advisors play a key role in reaching the goals set forth by the Law, thanks to their field activities. In fact, at the national, regional and provincial level, their task is to promote equal opportunities in their area of competence, as well as to monitor the compliance with anti-discrimination rules; duties and functions are more clearly defined in article 3 of the Legislative Decree 196/2000.

With reference to their functional profile, equality advisors carry out the tasks set forth by law by detecting gender imbalances, promoting positive actions, also by means of EU, national and local resources allocated for the purpose. They are also in charge of granting continuity between local development policies and relevant directions from the EU, the national government and local entities.

Their extended list of tasks also comprises supporting active labour policies, including those specifically related to training; promoting equal opportunities on the public and private side of the labour market; supporting Regional and Provincial Labour Offices to most effectively detect any discrimination, banned in all forms by the existing legislation; being familiar with and disseminating the sector’s best practices; assessing any results of positive actions under Law no. 125/91.

By the same token, judicial action in case of ascertained gender discrimination (already laid down by article 4 of Law no. 125/91) has been thoroughly redefined. The most significant changes are the possibility of using the Fund provided for by article 9 of Delegated Law 196/2000 to support said actions, as well as the judicial procedures related thereto.

One more instrument, provided by law to strengthen the functions of equality advisors and make their actions more effective, encouraging the exchange of information, experiences and best practices, is the National Network of Equality Advisors (men and women), coordinated by the National Equality Advisor.

The inaugural meeting of the Network produced a draft programme of activities to be carried out in the second semester of 2002.

Most noteworthy initiatives include the establishment of an electronic network among all equality advisors; the creation of study groups to deal in depth with topics relevant to the institutional activities of equality advisors; the launch of a specific website and an all-media information campaign.

The innovations on positive actions are the most significant among all those introduced by the Delegated Law hereto. Such innovations are aimed at streamlining and improving the effectiveness of positive actions funded under Law no. 125/91, in particular by enlarging the target group and simplifying access procedures to the funds.

As regards actions, more generally, article 7 of the Delegated Law no. 196/2000 has strengthened the existing obligation for public administrations to set up three-year positive actions plans to ensure, in their respective area of application, the removal of obstacles hindering the full achievement of equal opportunities between men and women in the workplace (see paragraph 4 of chapter I, on initiatives taken for further amendments to the existing legislation).

The “Provisions for supporting motherhood and fatherhood, for the right to caring and training and for coordinating urban times”, are aimed at favouring parents in sharing their children’s care, with a much broader system of protection than what set forth by previously existing legislation, making the conciliation between work times and family life finally possible.

The remarkable advantages provided for by this law, no longer restricted to women (and to working mothers in particular), are extended to fathers, who are finally acknowledged the right and given the chance to take relatively long leave periods for the care and assistance of their children.

The equal opportunities principle is one of the pillars of the European Employment Strategy set forth by the “Luxembourg Process”, as reconciling work and family life is one of the priorities laid down in the 2002 Employment Guidelines.

In the light of all this, legislation is aimed at striking a balance between work and personal life, first of all by means of incentives to working hours flexibility, but also by training programmes aimed at smoothly re-entering the labour market after maternal, paternal, or relative care leave.

Law no. 53/2000 is undoubtedly one of the most innovative in the European scenario. In particular, article 9 of this Law introduces working hours flexibility, with specific (though not exclusive) reference to children’s care. It fosters the development of a thoroughly new entrepreneurial culture, supporting new tools of “freedom” within the company, and favouring responsible dialogue between the Company and its employees.

By adopting the flexibility instruments provided for by law, the conditions can be created within the companies for a more effective exchange with the employees, with a more attentive eye to the needs of individuals, meeting family needs and keeping employment and professional potentials unchanged, to the advantage of both the employees and the company.

In particular, article 9 provides for incentives to companies adopting contract agreements containing positive actions to enhance flexibility. Eligible for financing are those companies that, having stipulated contract agreements with institutional Trade Unions, enact flexibility-enhancing positive actions. Priority is given to the so-called small enterprises, as 50% of the funds allocated annually is reserved for companies with less than 50 employees.

Undoubtedly, collective agreement as a prerequisite for fund access is one of the most significant innovations laid down by this Law.

The positive actions to be included in projects for access to funds are reversible part-time, tele-work and work-from-home schemes, flexible work start and finish times, the bank of hours, flexible shifts, concentrated working hours. Positive actions should be aimed at allowing beneficiaries to take advantage of enhanced work time and organisational flexibility to reconcile work and family life.

Most of the positive actions projects so far submitted by companies involve part-time schemes.

The innovations brought about by Law no. 53/2000 at the Italian and European level are worth mentioning, as is its consistency with EC work-life reconciliation guidelines.

This law accounts for an invaluable tool - also in terms of creating new employment opportunities - as emerged from a first sight assessment of projects presented thus far.

With further reference to other sorts of positive actions, in particular those aimed at reconciling working and life times and needs and at encouraging family-oriented policies, the Government has presented Draft Bill A.C. no. 2020 to the Parliament, the “National Plan on Kindergartens”.

This provision is part of a broader framework of measures of various sorts, aimed at promoting the institution of family and providing concrete solutions for reconciling family and personal needs (see paragraph 3.6, chapter I).

4. Female Entrepreneurship: Activities Carried Out and Guidelines for Future Actions

The continuous efforts carried out by the Ministry of Productive Activities in the field of supporting female entrepreneurship range from the enactment of Law no. 215/92 and go well beyond the mere management of available financial incentive, to include general aspects such as promoting entrepreneurial culture and equal opportunities.

The goal is to increase female representation on the work market, in that Italy’s women and their growth potential account for an invaluable asset for reaching occupational balance and productive development.

These activities were carried out in agreement with the Committee for Female Entrepreneurship, and with the collaboration of Unioncamere (the Association of all Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Craftsmanship and Agriculture) and the whole chamber system.

1. This was the first enactment of the new provisions on financial incentives introduced by Decree of the President of the Republic no. 314 as of 28^th July 2000, setting forth

funds allocated to access priority projects: € 287.9 m (of which € 233.8 m provided by the National government)

micro-enterprises, prevalently active in the tertiary (roughly 70%), average project investment amounting to roughly € 100,000, strong prevalence of individual businesses (62%).

1. The specifications for applicant enterprises and the provision opening the Concourse are currently being released.

The amount of available funds has remained unchanged from 2002: € 134 m (already allocated by region by the Ministry of Productive Activities in June 2002).

Almost all Regions have agreed upon joint financing (except for Emilia Romagna and the Provincial Administration of Bolzano), for an overall amount of roughly € 30 m.

2. Plus, € 7.8 m are available for financing Regional projects for providing services to female-run businesses (ex article 21 of the Decree of the President of the Republic 314/2000): application terms are currently being disclosed.

C) Amendments to the set of rules (as published in the National State Law Bulletin on 16^th October, 2002) of the Central Fund of Warranty for Small and Medium Enterprises, set up by law no. 662/96, aimed at favouring female enterprises. The new measures include:

This action is aimed at favouring credit access to female-run businesses and improving their relationships with the banking system, still a critical turnpike of their development process.

D) Enactment of the Agreement Protocol between the Ministry of Productive Activities and Unioncamere (signed in May 1999), promoting the constitution of Female Entrepreneurship Committees in all Chambers of Commerce. Said Committees, working closely together with local entrepreneurs, make up an invaluable network that can provide a wide range of services to inform and assist female-run companies.

The Ministry is currently reviewing its agreements with Unioncamere, in order to strengthen the role and functions of this network, stressing the importance of female entrepreneurship within the chamber system.

E) Project for access to credit (signed in December 2000): this project defines a standard best practices model for chamber committees and local development workers to bridge the gap between businesses and banks. According to this model, bank conventions and agreements can be stipulated to grant credit access to local enterprises; the economic and financial feasibility of projects might be evaluated before the enterprise files a formal bank credit application, with the option of resorting to public warranty funds.

Currently, the Ministry is monitoring this project to give momentum to its implementation at the local level.

1) Continue promoting the managerial qualification of businesses, highlighting services aimed at granting the establishment of financially healthy enterprises, with good know-how and fair market survival chances.

It is advisable to take actions targeting the services supply towards initiatives of particular strategic significance, with the aid of the chamber system and, especially, of Regional administrations (the latter have the opportunity of launching services initiatives on the basis of a special regional programme funded by the Ministry, under Article. 21 of the Decree of the President of the Republic no. 314/2000). Therefore, the Female Entrepreneurship Committee, active within this Ministry, has issued guidelines that Regions can use in elaborating their Programmes.

2) Support the innovation and internationalisation process of female run enterprises, by planning actions in the field of training and support and considering priority access to financial incentives aimed at favouring said processes.

3) Ensure adequate and continuous funding to law no. 215/92, to pursue the above goals.

4) Highlight the impact assessment of incentives, so as to monitor the changes of entrepreneurial trends and devise increasingly innovating and effective tools. Alongside with surveys taken this far, it is advisable to extend monitoring to strictly qualitative aspects, to determine whether a female entrepreneurial model actually exists.

For the last few years, Italy has intensified efforts to activate mainstreaming policies and positive actions aimed at equality and equal opportunities, also motivated by the EC’s frequent joint financing for many action plans.

The actions taken so far have been directed at increasing the number of law provisions enhancing women’s labour market participation – and, more generally, their participation in active policies. Most provisions focus on self-employment and entrepreneurial opportunities and on reconciling work and family life – actions are increasingly based on programming, i.e., on setting goals and priority reference areas in advance.

The National Action Plan (NAP) for Employment is one of the most significant tools for programming national policies, based on strategies aiming, inter alia, at achieving equal opportunities, NAPs are drafted annually on the basis of EC guidelines. Their goals include raising employment rates and increasing job creation, giving momentum to the creation of new enterprises and to the entrepreneurial spirit in general, and promoting equal opportunities. Labour policies result not only from governmental initiatives; in compliance with the concertation (social agreement) principle, they are produced in collaboration with the social partners, with particular reference to trade unions and entrepreneurs’ associations.

NAPs report strategies as well as all the actions started or completed in the reference period and the relevant funds allocations; this allows monitoring all innovation and development processes underway in single member states.

Given the existing regional disparities, the national strategy is articulated through actions differentiated by region. Northern Italy needs active and preventive policies targeted for populations with highest unemployment rates (women, the youth and the elderly). In turn, Southern regions require policies focused on enhancing labour force demand (as well as actions aimed at the surfacing of unofficial labour), and measures against unemployment, with an adequately attentive eye to active policies.

The goal of raising women’s employment rate is pursued by means of provisions addressing the labour market (such as Draft Law A.S. no. 848, passed by the Chamber of Deputies), the reform of the employment services system and the kindergarten issue (Draft Law A.C. no. 2020 has been extensively dealt with in chapter I). In particular, this goal can be achieved by:

▪ improving employment services and targeting them for women (information, professional orientation and connection of the labour market demand with the human resources supply);

▪ developing policies focused on continuous training, professional qualification and lifelong learning;

▪ developing working times modulation (with particular reference to part-time) schemes, so as to reconcile family and professional needs in the respect of every individual’s will;

▪ enhancing childhood care services, within a broader framework encompassing various family-targeted measures.

Regional administrations are developing a set of supporting actions pursuing various aspects of reconciling work and family life. In particular, the joint efforts of the Regions, the local entities and the national government immediately translate into the connection linking employment services, training and subsidies for re-entering the labour market. Regions can fine-tune active labour policies with local policies: this is all the more important in the increasingly differentiated Italian scenario, with the Mezzogiorno lagging far behind. In turn, the State administration will monitor the interaction between public and private subjects, and the successful integration of active and passive policies, to make the income support action of social buffers as effective and direct as it gets.

The ESF Single Programming Document 2000-2006 has given Regional Administrations the chance of testing innovative solutions brought about by the ongoing upgrade of labour policy tools, also by means of actions aimed at education and training, with an approach strongly oriented to integration and flexibility. The ESF, acting as a multiplier, provides the Regional Administrations with the most effective tools for programming and financing labour policies, consolidating their systems, developing and disseminating the sector’s best practices, along with the evident contributions to supporting and developing employment-related services.

With the new Programming period 2000 to 2006, fully implemented in 2001 after defining the programming complements and launching the first concourses, ESF has played a decisive role in transforming Italy’s policy making approaches and processes.

At the local level, experiments of embedding the mainstreaming principle in all human resource policies are well underway, with particular attention to female representation among the beneficiaries of ESF activities.

The so-called VISPO guidelines (Valutazione Impatto Strategico Pari Opportunità, Equal Opportunities Strategic Impact Assessment) and their implementation further corroborate the mainstreaming principle. These guidelines were laid down by the Ministry for Equal Opportunities to assess the ex-ante situation, as well as the in-itinere and ex-post impact of the programmes, in terms of:

▪ improving the female condition in the workplace and redistributing the caring work;

▪ promoting female participation to the creation of social and economic activities.

With the VISPO Document, the Government has provided a valuable tool to Regions and Local Administration with Structural Funds Programming responsibilities.

This document brings about full-fledged innovations involving various subjects in charge of programming activities, managing resources and stipulating agreements with the relevant trade unions and partner associations.

VISPO guidelines have been adopted by decision makers in charge of operational programming for strategy planning purposes and in drafting the relevant programming documents.

8.1 The Path to Childbirth – Caesarean Sections: Situation, Trends and Regional Incidence

Population ageing is one of the challenges of the 21^st Century: twenty years ago, the main topic of the First World Assembly on ageing, held in Vienna, was ageing in the developed world.

UN sources estimate that Italy is the European country with the highest percentage of people over 65 years and the lowest percentage of people under 14 years of age and foresee a rise of people over 60 from current 24.1% to 27.2% by 2010 and 42.3% by 2050.

Gender-oriented estimates also report that a global (not only Italian) “feminisation of the elder population” is underway, whose causes and consequences are manifold. One of the causes is women’s longer life. Statistics show that in Italy women’s life expectancy at birth is higher by more than six years than men’s. Living longer lives, women endure loneliness, also because of the age difference (man is usually older) most often existing in couples. Plus, at times they suffer strong marginalisation and poverty, given the still wide social gap with men.

In Italy, the social, health care and economic implications of the above have over the last few years spurred the transformation of policies to upgrade social and economic structures with a gender perspective. In the year 2000, Framework Law no. 328/2000 set forth the establishment of a network of social actions and services. This law promotes a demography-adjusted welfare model, providing for the necessary facilitations, home care, health care systems properly managed by private and public service providers, and the “valorisation of family responsibilities and generational solidarity”. The National Fund for Social Policies has allocated “a quota reserved for services to non self-sufficient elderly, to promote their autonomy and support families in providing home care to elderly applicants”. Furthermore, research projects such as the Italian National Research Council’s Targeted Project Ageing and the Strategic Project Ageing (the latter in collaboration with the Superior Health Institute and the Italian Gerontology and Geriatrics Society, S.I.G.G.), have yielded important results for the improvement of the elderly’s quality of life, and the reduction of illness and hospitalisation expenses as well^[2].

Demographic data confirm the population’s average life increase throughout the past century; in 1999, life expectancy at birth reached 76 years for men and 81 for women, with respective increases of 23 months and 19 months in comparison with 1993, and of 1.2 years for men and 0.7 for women in comparison with 1995. Latest estimates by ISTAT (Italy’s National Institute of Statistics) set the 2002 life expectancy at 82.9 for women and at 76.8 for men. Recent studies have found that the above difference is attributable for roughly 63% to women’s lower mortality for cardiovascular diseases and tumours, which makes up for over 70% of current mortality rates. Increasingly relevant are strongly differentiated individual behaviours and life habits between the sexes.

Men’s youth mortality, having its most frequent causes in road accidents, suicides and HIV/AIDS³, is another gender difference that determines women’s higher survival rates through mature age. A more attentive attitude to health care problems is also noteworthy: ISTAT surveys have shown that women are more inclined to turn to prevention and health care services, taking greater advantage than men of the progress in this field.

Besides cardiovascular diseases, male cancer mortality is remarkably higher, with the all too obvious exception of breast cancer, accounting for round 11,000 deaths and an estimated 25,000 new diagnoses each year. Estimates for Italy indicate roughly 270,000 tumour cases each year. Incidence rate in the Italian elderly population is still on the rise, whereas age-adjusted incidence rates are estimated stable. On the other hand, lung cancer (once typically male) currently ranks sixth in female tumours.

Lung cancer ranks first in overall incidence rates, followed by breast, colon-rectal and stomach cancer (source: the Italian Tumour Registers).

Smoking and bad eating habits (including alcohol abuse) are acknowledged risk factors for many cancer categories that can explain around two thirds of all cancer cases.

The number of prevention programmes such as information and screening campaigns for the early diagnosis of mainly female pathologies (such as osteoporosis, breast and cervical cancer) has risen remarkably over the last few years.

Many regional programmes for the prevention of female tumours have been launched recently under the banner of the National Health Care Plan 2003-2005; preventive screening tests such as mammographies and pap smears, promoted through awareness-raising campaigns, have a positive impact on so-called “preventable deaths”.

Table 8.1 – Life expectancy at birth and at 60 years of age - Italy
	Male	Female	Male	Female
	At birth		At 60 years of age
1993	74.1	80.7	18.9	23.6
1994	74.3	81.0	19.1	23.8
1995	74.8	81.4	19.4	24.1
1996	75.1	81.6	19.6	24.3
1997	75.4	81.7	19.7	24.3
1998	75.5	81.8	19.7	24.3
1999	76.0	82.1	20.0	24.6
2000*	76.3	82.4	20.3	24.8
2001*	76.7	82.8	20.6	25.2
2002*	76.8	82.9	20.7	25.2
(*) estimated Source: Istat (National Institute of Statistics), Mortality data of the Italian population by province and region of residence. Period: 1993 to 1999

3. Poverty

The youth and the elderly are the most disadvantaged age groups. 2001 data show that 13.5% of people aged more than 65 living alone, of which women make up more than half, also because most of them receive minimum pensions: this gets back to the complex debate on reversibility pensions. Social security, established to provide for the needs of the elderly, was based on wage earners, whereas recently the pension fund for housewives provided for by the Italian Social Security Institute (INPS) has begun adding value to domestic work, children raising, elderly care. It caters to women with no direct pensions and also to those receiving reversibility pensioners.

Furthermore, the cause-effect relationship between illness and poverty is interactive. Lack of income can lead to illness, which in turn can cause poverty. Not only severe, disabling pathologies, but also chronic and frequently relapsing diseases can make individuals totally dependant on the family or the social services, eventually determining his or her labour force exclusion. The same is true for many forms of psychic distress originating from all but “natural” causes and very common among women.

In the light of all this, the above Law no. 328/2000 promotes actions against poverty and social exclusion facing disadvantaged individuals.

Though disadvantaged, according to a study carried out by the Institute for Research on Social Services, elderly women play an important role in caring for their parents, older relatives, partners, sons and daughters, and, in 40% of all cases, for grandchildren and other relatives. Therefore, the National Fund for Social Policies' “quota reserved for services to non self-sufficient elderly, to promote their autonomy and support families in providing home care to elderly applicants” provides concrete support to the key role of women in their families.

4. Health Status

Even though Italian women live longer, their general health status is worse than their male counterparts’. In 1999-2000, 62.5% of interviewed men and only 51.2% of women declared to be in good health: this gap remained constant also in samples from the same age groups, therefore it cannot be explained with women’s averagely greater longevity and with the consequent incidence of advanced age pathologies. As it often happens with surveys, it is hard to tell whether this difference is determined by objective conditions or by subjective perceptions.

As regards the objective factors, an important gender gap indicator is the worse impact of social disadvantage on women’s health (measured in terms of lack of cultural resources). ISTAT studies on mortality differentials show that social disadvantage can be held accountable for 24.9% of male deaths and 27.4% of female deaths. Apparently, diabetes is the female mortality cause whose trend is most affected by social disadvantage, a chronic disease more frequent in women, in the age group over 65.

According to 1999 estimates, women live in good health for less than 47 years over an average life expectancy of more than 82 years, whereas men can expect 50 disability-free years of life expectancy (see below) at birth over a total survival of 76 years. Hence, women’s greater longevity does not translate in better survival quality: this can partly be explained by the different types of diseases affecting each of the sexes; indeed, the perception of one’s own health status is heavily influenced by presence or absence of chronic or degenerative pathologies.

Women are plagued earlier and more often than men by disabling (if less lethal) diseases, like arthritis, osteoporosis, artery hypertension and diabetes; men, as seen above, more frequently suffer from deadly chronic pathologies, such as malign tumours and cardiovascular diseases. Ageing brings about multiple chronic conditions: with increasing frequency, longer survival is accompanied by the onset of multiple chronic impairments and multiple morbidity.

5. Disability

One more indicator of possibly worse health status is the rate of disabled women, which accounts for 6.2% as opposed to men’s 4%. Partly, this gap can be explained by women’s longer life expectancy, as disability has a higher incidence on the elderly population: female disability incidence rises after 60 years of age. Yet, a gender gap exists also within the same age groups. As disability-free life expectancy (DFLE) might be a more reliable indicator to assess quality of life of the elderly population, the average Italian woman can expect to live an additional twenty years, (fifteen of which in complete self-sufficiency), the average Italian man an additional sixteen years (of which fourteen disability-free). Women have a longer DFLE at any age; yet the initial advantage of three and a half years reduces progressively with ageing, down to eighteen months at 65 and to as low as less than five months at 75.

The gender disability gap is more evident after 55 years of age, widens over 70 (disability ratio at 70 to 74 is 131.9 per thousand for females and 97.8 for their male counterparts), and gapes widest over 80 years of age (in this age group, female disability ratio is 520.2 per thousand and male is 386.6 for men).

Women are plagued by mobility impairments earlier and more often than men: females endure mobility problems starting as early as at 55, and worsening significantly until 80 years of age and over. Mobility problems strike women more than men (in the 55-64 age group, female mobility impairment ratio is 22.9 per thousand against men’s 14.7). Women are indeed more prone to osteoporosis and lumbar/sciatic pain, mostly occurring over 50 years of age, impairing the musculoskeletal system and mobility functions.

Though data show a female advantage, over the last few years men have gained more disability-free life than women (particularly when it comes to minor disabilities): indeed, the 5.3% male disability rate in 1990 had declined to 3.4% in 1999, as opposed to women’s 7% going down to 6.2% in the same reference years.

Smoking is the first and foremost cause of lung cancer at a global level. In Italy, gender differences in cancer mortality rates are evident: during the five year period 1990 through 1994, lung cancer was the first cause of death among women, ranking fifth for women – after breast cancer and digestive system tumours. According to ISTAT figures, lung cancer incidence among Italian women is on the rise, while the increase curve for men has stopped: female lung cancer mortality rate has risen by 79% in 24 years. As is well known, taking up the smoking habit during adolescence exposes to higher risk of lung cancer: female smokers that begin smoking before 19 have double the risk of their male peers.

The attitude to smoking also varies according to social status: male college graduates tend to smoke less than peers with lower education; on the other hand, college graduate women are the most prone to smoking, in particular in the age group 35 to 64. Smoking is now more frequent among female executives and professionals, whereas heaviest male smokers are found among blue collars. The percentage of female health care professionals (among the hardest smokers) who admit to smoke also in the presence of kids is higher than that of female workers.

These data are particularly alarming considering lung cancer risks for women and their established role of educators at the family and community levels - let alone specific foetal risks of smoking during pregnancy.

As for lung cancer, primary prevention plays a key role in reducing mortality. Italy boasts one of the most advanced and exhaustive legislations issued in single Western countries and in European member states. Yet, law is too often disregarded. To deter violators more effectively, Article 52, item 20 of the 2002 Budget Law raises sanctions for smoking in non-smoking areas, with fines of € 25 to 250, while these amounts can be doubled if the person is caught smoking in the presence of women who are visibly pregnant, small babies or children up to the age of 12. Meanwhile, stricter police control and monitoring of violations have been encouraged.

Though statistics prove that women are a group at particular risk, smoking prevention campaigns promoted in Italy over the last twenty years have been clearly gender-blind, except those targeted to pregnant women. The 2002-2004 National Health sets forth stronger education and information campaigns on damages of first and second hand smoking, targeted especially to school kids and women in their fertile age.

Last but not least, the new National Health Care Plan stresses the importance of lifestyles, from eating habits to physical activity. The Plan aims at promoting a gender-oriented policy, as Italian women tend to associate sports and physical activity to beauty rather than to health care.

7. Safe Motherhood

Safe pregnancy and motherhood are integral parts of female health care. Maternal, infant, prenatal mortality and stillbirths are some of the indicators necessary to assess social and health care to mothers and children. Mortality rates have been declining significantly also in Italy, which testifies the improved quality of care.

The “Mother and Child Targeted Project” launched by the previous National Health Care Plan (1998-2000) covers all aspects of female health in the various periods of life, with particular reference to all expressions of sexuality, responsible and intended procreation (also to prevent resorting to abortion), supporting women in their path to childbirth and its humanisation, assisting physiological pregnancy, preventing and treating maternal and foetal pathologies, and launching puerperal home care projects, aimed at reaching the most disadvantaged women and promoting breastfeeding.

The Government’s programming effort has brought about significant “spin-offs” in regional administrations, with projects on reproductive health, pregnancy, delivery and puerperium, based on prevention and a new, female-oriented culture of pregnancy and childbirth: a permanent “roundtable on women and health” has been established to disseminate information on the Mother and Child Targeted Project.

This plan has spurred some regional administrations to issue laws aimed at changing the methods of childbirth assistance. The new “National Health Care Plan 2003-2005” sets the goals of reducing Caesarean section rates and increasing the availability of facilities for the so-called “painless delivery”.

As to supporting motherhood (and fatherhood), a deliberation referring to law 53/2000^[2] has been passed for the allocation of a monthly indemnity for mothers and fathers of children up to one year of age, taking a parental leave for their children’s first months of life. The maternity check is also noteworthy, provided for by the title “Reduction of social burdens and protection to motherhood” of the 2000 Budget Law, no. 448/99 and extended by the latest Budget Law to non-working, formerly working, and mothers working under special conditions (including adoptive and custodian mother), who do not receive any maternity allowance or only very low indemnities granted by local entities.

Mother and child health is an integral part of public health of human populations. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has outlined a specific project relevant to this topic and has set ten goals to reach within the Ninth General Programme of Work (covering the period from 1996 to 2000) seven of which are closely related to reproductive health. Italy has passed the Mother and Child Targeted Project on 24^th April 2001 laid down in the National Health Care Plan for the three year period 1998 to 2000.

Many changes in the field of reproductive health have occurred in Italy over the last 40 years, just like in other Countries with an advanced economy. The birth rate has fallen sharply – from 1 million 35 thousands in 1964 down to 543 thousands in the year 2000 (533,000 estimated for 2002) – whereas the average age of first-child mothers has risen.

On one hand, increasingly resorting to certain techniques and procedures during pregnancy, delivery and puerperium has helped reducing perinatal and maternal mortality, yet on the other has favoured the overmedicalisation of such events. Over the last few years, a slight rise in spontaneous abortion rates has been observed in Italy, while at the international level worries are growing about human fertility.

8.1 Childbirth – Caesarean Section: Situation, Trends and Incidence by Region^[5]

The data presented here confirm in Italy a rising trend of resorting to procedures whose utility is not supported by scientific evidence, or by the actual increase of risk conditions.

Caesarean section rate is one of the internationally acknowledged sexual and reproductive health (SRH) indicators and one of the process indicators for monitoring effective and appropriate care selected by the General Direction of Health Care Planning of the Italian Ministry of Health.

Caesarean section rate in Italy has remarkably increased in the last 20 years, from 11.2% (1980) to 33.2% (2000), a value exceeding WHO suggestions by 10 to 15% and other European Countries’ values (i.e. 21.5% in Great Britain and Wales, 17.8% in Spain, 15.9% in France). Plus, rates vary considerably by Region, from 18.7% in the Province of Bolzano up to 53.4% in Campania in the year 2000. Within the same region, Caesarean section rates reported in different health also vary widely.

Most significant increases are reported in Southern Italy (from 1980 to 2000, respectively from 8.5% to 53.4% in Campania and from 7.1% to 37,6% in Calabria). Higher Caesarean section rates and higher increments over time have been recorded in privately owned clinics.

A series of studies carried out in the last few years by the Superior Health Institute, by ISTAT and other institutions has made it possible to evaluate the impact of certain factors on the risk of delivering via Caesarean section. Analyses using logistic regression models show this risk increases for ageing mothers, women delivering in private centres, those who attended no delivery preparation course, residents of Southern Italy, and, needless to say, those experiencing a troubled pregnancy.

Moreover, when this information was collected, a very high risk of Caesarean section was observed if the woman already had a child with this procedure. A study involving three hospitals has also shown that this risk varies sensibly with the health care provider assisting the delivery.

As for Caesarean sections and assisted pregnancy through childbirth, the available data confirm Italy’s rising trend of resorting to procedures whose need is not based on scientific evidence and not justified by the increase of risk factors.

In the last decade, the number of immigrant women residing or living in Italy has substantially risen. According to 1991 estimates, there were some 260,000 immigrant women in Italy; this population reached 635,729 individuals in early 2001. They make up 2.1% of the resident female population as a whole and live prevalently in the North of Italy (53.0%), with less presence in the Central (32.6%) and Southern Regions (14.4%).

These women are generally young (more than 65% are between 19 and 40 years of age, therefore in reproductive age. The pattern of their provenience is varied – most of them come from Countries with less advanced economies: 27% from Eastern Europe, 20% from Asia, 19% from Africa and 13% from Latin America.

The results of the study allow drawing a sufficiently clear picture of the immigrant women’s experience of motherhood, their access to public health care services for childbirth, or to voluntary interruption of pregnancy, and are compared to 1995 and 1996 data.

A general improvement of health care during pregnancy, childbirth and puerperium has emerged: the percentage of women doing their first visit after the first trimester (from 25% to 16%), the average number of echographies matches the recommendations of national protocols, and, just like Italian women, the month of their first echography was averagely the third. Still, 4% of them have received no pregnancy care. Though the immigrants’ level of knowledge has improved significantly in comparison with 1995 and 1996, it is still lower than that of Italian women: this demands a “retargeting” of services, also in the light of the heterogeneousness of the immigrant population in Italy.

Today, every woman in Italy may request the voluntary interruption of pregnancy (VIP) within 90 days of pregnancy for health-related, social, economic or family reasons. Since 1978, this practice is regulated by Law 194, "Social protection of motherhood and the voluntary interruption of pregnancy", which sets forth VIP access procedures. VIP can be performed in public establishments and in private clinics authorised by the Region.

National VIP data is currently collected, analysed and published by the Superior Health Institute (System of Epidemiological Surveillance), the Ministry of Health and by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT). In the light of this data, the Ministry of Health presents a yearly Report on VIP trends and the enforcement of the above law to the Parliament.

Over the last two decades, a reduction of abortion rates has been observed in Italy, probably due to the increased and improved use of family planning methods and to the important role played by family planning centres. Given the social and demographical profile of women resorting to VIP, a further reduction can be expected in the near future.

After the initial incidence rise – up to 231,000 VIPs in 1982 (accounting for an abortion rate of 16.7 per 1,000 women aged 15 to 49 and an abortion ratio of 380.2 per 1,000 live births), the number has declined steadily over the last few years, down to 135,000 VIPs in 2000 (abortion rate = 9.3; abortion ratio = 250.1). Therefore, the number of VIPs has decreased by roughly 100,000 compared with trends of the early Eighties; this makes up for a 44% reduction of the abortion rate and a 34% decrease of the abortion ratio in almost twenty years.

The incidence is similar to other countries of North-western Europe; abortion rates range from 6.5 per 1,000 in the Netherlands to 18.7 in Sweden, still much lower than those recorded in Eastern European countries (often around 50 per 1,000) and in the United States (22.9 per 1,000).

Abortion incidence is differentiated by region and area, as in the case other health care issues: in 2000, the abortion rate observed in northern Italy’s regions was 8.9 per thousand, 10.0 in the Centre, 10.2 in the South and 7.2 in the Islands. A reduction was detected in all regions, and regional gaps tend to close over time.

The most significant reductions were recorded in regions where a higher number of women had turned to family planning centres to obtain their pre-abortion certificates.

Moreover, according to estimates of Italy’s Superior Health Institute, carried out by means of special mathematical models, illegal abortions continue to be performed (roughly 23,000 in 1999), heterogeneously distributed on the national territory, with higher incidence in the southern regions. As the same models indicated some 100,000 illegal abortions back in 1983, a reduction by two-thirds has been accomplished since then.

The studies carried out to date show that in most cases resorting to VIP is not an option, but rather the consequence of concrete incapability of regulating fertility with other methods. Nevertheless, data show positive steps ahead towards fertility control: over 70% of aborting women had used some contraceptive method at the moment of accidental conception, mainly withdrawal. This is confirmed by the trend of repeated VIPs, well under mathematical model estimates assuming that fertility controlling behaviours remain unchanged over time.

However, there are categories that resort more often to abortion: these include women with children, with lower education and housewives. The most significant reductions have been observed among married women, in the age group 25 to 34, and especially those with children.

The number of immigrant women resident in Italy applying for abortion has been rising in the last few years. In 1999, it reached 18,803 (accounting for 14% of a total of 138,708 VIPs), as opposed to 9,852 cases recorded in 1996.

The increase of immigrant women resorting to abortion is doubtlessly related to the growing presence of immigrants in Italy: according to ISTAT figures, for example, permits of stay have increased from 678,000 in 1995 to 1,100,000 in 1999. Using an estimate of immigrant women in the age group 15 to 49, ISTAT reckons a population-specific abortion rate of 32.5% in 1999, roughly three-fold that of Italian women. Small wonder, as immigrant women residing in Italy most often live in poor conditions and come from countries where abortion is more often resorted to than in Italy.

The quota of immigrant women’s access to abortion against the overall number might well be the cause of the levelling-off of abortion rate in Italy. Indeed, considering Italian citizens alone, abortion is still declining: 127,690 Italian VIP applicants in 1996 against 118,808 in 1999. These two years are the most reliable samples, as information on residency status is most complete.

Differences also exist in age groups most often resorting to abortion between immigrant and Italian women: Italian women are most likely to resort to abortion between 25 and 34 years of age, whereas immigrant women are more prone to undergo VIP when they are younger.

The available data on abortion access flag the need of support and information policies targeted to immigrant women in Italy (especially the youngest age groups).

Analysing the Italian trend of resorting to abortion shows that Law no. 194/78 has accomplished the legislator’s goals, and that the investment of raising the women’s level of awareness has paid off. Further reduction can be achieved if more attention and resources are devoted to raise the awareness of the most disadvantaged: in this respect, immigration poses new challenges to test the various professional competences involved in quality heath care promotion.


	AGE

YEAR	15-19	20-24	25-29	30-34	35-39	40-44	45-49


1980	6.2	21.6	25.1	24.8	19.3	9.60	1.2
1981	6.5	22.4	25.8	24.2	21.3	9.9	1.2
1982	7.0	23.1	27.4	25.7	22.5	10.4	1.3
1983	6.7	22.8	26.7	25.2	22.5	10.4	1.4
1984	6.5	21.7	25.9	25.5	22.5	10.4	1.3
1985	5.7	19.3	23.6	23.6	20.2	9.8	1.3
1986	5.2	17.5	21.9	22.4	18.2	10.1	1.2
1987	5.0	16.2	20.4	21.6	17.5	10.0	1.2
1988	4.7	15.3	19.0	19.9	16.6	9.7	1.1
1989	4.7	14.4	18.2	19.1	16.4	8.8	1.1
1990	4.5	13.7	17.2	18.4	15.8	8.3	1.0
1991	4.5	13.2	16.1	17.5	15.3	7.6	1.1
1992	4.6	12.8	15.2	16.4	14.4	7.1	1.0
1993	4.7	12.5	14.5	15.7	13.7	6.7	0.9
1994	5.8	12.2	13.4	14.1	12.2	5.6	0.6
1995	6.1	12.2	13.1	13.4	11.9	5.7	0.5
1996	6.5	12.7	13.1	13.5	11.9	5.7	0.5
1997	6.6	13.0	13.3	13.2	11.8	5.5	0.5
1998	6.8	13.7	13.4	12.8	11.2	5.4	0.5
1999	7.1	14.2	13.7	12.8	11.2	5.2	0.5
2000	7.1	14.3	13.5	12.5	10.6	4.9	0.5

10. Medically Assisted Procreation

The very high male and female infertility rates recorded in Italy explain the medical, social and health care policy relevance attributed to the problem. Fertility rates, if differentiated by region, are among the lowest in Europe according to WHO data. Female sterility and infertility causes can be manifold, though it is crystal-clear that protecting and promoting women’s health must translate into preventing any possible environmental workplace risks and enhancing the active supply of counselling. In the broad framework of protecting women’s health, with particular reference to medically assisted procreation, the aforementioned “Mother and Child Targeted Project” calls for the organisational and operational requalification of Family Health Counselling Centres, to help women make better and more aware choices.

Italy’s Bill on medically assisted procreation has been passed by the Chamber of Deputies and is being examined by the 12^th Commission of the Senate. The guidelines set forth by the European Council’s Framework Convention in the field of Bioethics are transposed in the Bill in a somewhat stricter way than in other European countries, yet more flexible when it comes to the woman’s 52 years of age limit for resorting to this techniques, that becomes the “biological limit” varying from case to case on the basis of a series of absolutely subjective factors. Article 5 of the Bill reads “in potentially fertile age”, extending to de facto couple families the access to medically assisted procreation.

Article 3 provides for family and motherhood information and assistance services to introduce the adoption option, and acknowledges the lawful and inalienable right of individuals to attempt to have own children: assisted fertilisation is defined as a “cure, where other therapies should prove ineffective”, and as such, resorting to it is a right of individuals granted in Article 5. Yet, mentioned atop in Article 1 are the “rights of the conceived child”: this means that the embryo is to be considered as an individual, that acknowledging the couple’s desire to have children is to be conciliated with the children’s welfare and rights. The Bill on medically assisted procreation, taking into account the directions of the National Bioethics Committee, is also aimed at limiting experimentations with embryos and any form of trade.

As is well known, HIV/AIDS increasingly strikes women: available data confirm a rising trend that makes HIV/AIDS the fourth leading cause of death by disease for women and the fifth for men. There are biological, cultural and social reasons explaining women’s higher risk of infection. Today, a high degree of awareness of the seriousness of the problem has been reached, thanks to the information and prevention campaigns planned by the Ministry of Health with the collaboration of the Ministry of Public Education, introducing the issue of “responsible behaviours” and of prevention measures against the infection. A gender perspective has also developed; specially designed information material has been made available to women, as the increase of HIV-positive women is related to major issues such as HIV/AIDS epidemiology during pregnancy and expected newborn infections. In 2001, the Ministry of Health and the National Commission on HIV/AIDS have issued the Guidelines on Antiretroviral Therapy for the Treatment of HIV/AIDS, containing also the General Recommendations to Prevent HIV/AIDS Mother-to-Child Transmission During Pregnancy, Childbirth and Breastfeeding. Re-established by Decree as of 8^th August 2001 for the years 2001 and 2002, the National Commission on HIV/AIDS has recently approved important documents such as the draft amendments to the interministerial decree on the incompatibility of HIV/AIDS and the penitentiary system (passed as an Interministerial Decree as 7^th May 2001), the guidelines for the National HIV/AIDS Prevention Campaign 2001-2002, the definition of an Italian action aimed at controlling HIV/AIDS infection and other infectious diseases, various proposals for establishing HIV/AIDS care centres.

5. Enactment at the National Level of Law 269/98 against Sexual Exploitation of Minors (as of December 2001)

6. Enactment at the National Level of Law 269/98 against Sexual Exploitation of Minors (after December 2001)

Violence against women in the form of rape, sexual, physical, and economic violence is a violation of women’s rights, perceived by Italy’s women and whole public opinion as a serious social and cultural plague, though too often underestimated and tangled in the meanders of politics and cultural traditions.

Many elements contained in the previous CEDAW report have contributed to raising the awareness of how fierce men’s violence against women is, both for the individual suffering and for the perverse social and economic effects it brings about.

Initiatives at the international level, such as evaluations on the implementations of the Beijing Platform of Action and the many EU-backed actions have helped raising the awareness on this phenomenon in Italy too.

Many actions at different levels have been taken by local and national public institutions as well as by women’s associations and NGOs.

The passing of Law no. 66 of 15^th February 1996 accounts for a most significant innovation in sexual violence legislation.

Said Law qualifies violence against women as a crime against personal liberty – a significant step ahead from previously existing provisions, which would classify rape under crimes against public morality.

The new Law has drawn the public opinion’s attention on this topic and made possible court decisions that better match the problem’s nature and seriousness.

Moreover, the above Law has provided an invaluable tool to many women’s association, which for years have been trying to tackle the problem of violence against women and playing a key role in supporting victims against violent husbands, partners and fathers, by welcoming them in special centres.

Worth mentioning in this field are the achievements of Region Emilia Romagna, which has opened an anti-violence centre in each Province, has provided regional co-ordination to the whole network, and has carried out in-depth analyses on particular aspects of this phenomenon.

To date, more than 100 associations have organised counselling centres, toll-free crisis support phone lines, and provided legal and psychological support to women in difficult situations.

Along with specific law provisions, with the support of funds provided to Regions and Local entities under Law 285/97 on Children Rights, more than 300 facilities have been activated by initiative of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, with the continuous field activity of social and health care service providers and NGOs, especially those dealing with child violence and abuse within the household.

Besides, a network has been established, connecting public services, anti-violence centres and associations that combat violence against women.

Over time, it appears increasingly evident that facing this thorny issue requires a set of extremely complex measures: awareness raising, training, prevention; damage reduction, repression prosecution of perpetrators, each step calling for the commitment of the relevant institutions.

As a matter of fact, actions lag behind intentions, as the issue of violence against women is somewhat new to institutions, at times hitting the headlines, still not yet becoming a social priority.

In fact, apart from statements on black chronicle episodes, measures taken by policy makers over the last few years, if steadily increasing in number, have been developing with discontinuity.

The most significant innovations in the political and institutional scenario are much tougher court decisions in defence of the dignity of violence victims. Decision no. 1636 of 10^th February 1999 remains a single case – the Court sentenced that charges of rape could not be sustained, as the victim was wearing a pair of jeans trousers.

Law enforcers and health care service providers are finally turning to research and considering proposals of innovative actions.

As for training and welcoming methods, positive elements come from the national and especially the international scenario. The World Conference on Women, inaugurated back in 1975 with the Mexico City Conference, with regular follow-ups every five years, has opened a world-wide debate on violence against women, setting concrete goals to be achieved in all Countries, committing the institutions to continuously tackling this plague.

In Italy, the Beijing Platform of Action has been adopted as a benchmark for initiatives.

With the Directive of the pro-tempore President of the Council of Ministers, passed on 7^th March 1997, the Italian Government and all Institutions commit to preventing and tackling all forms of physical, sexual and psychological violence against women, ranging from household abuse to trafficking of women and minors for sex slavery purposes.

The Directive highlights the importance of steadily monitoring the phenomenon by statistical surveys at the national level.

In 1998, the first national statistical survey on violence and harassment was completed by at the invitation of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities.

This survey yielded a Report covering all forms of violence in various sorts of environments – from workplace to household. Since then, the data collection activity of the hot lines at anti-violence centres and women’s shelter homes has increased, as have regional surveys, like the above-mentioned survey taken by Region Emilia Romagna.

Consistently with the objectives of the above Directive, the Government has acted on the legislative side, establishing Law no. 154 of 5^th April 2001 that lays down removing the violent family member from the household by means of civil or criminal court decision, as well as enacting social protection measures in favour of trafficked women independently of their offering collaboration to the relevant judicial authorities.

The Government has also adopted a special plan on household violence against minors, with financing priority to actions indicated by Municipalities, local health care units (hereinafter, ASLs), Schools and/or private social care providers. Under Law no. 451 of 23^rd December 1997 a special National Commission was established that drafted the “Guidelines against child violence and abuse”, with particular attention to violence against young girls.

This picture is strongly influenced by both the new forms of child violence and projects and witnesses by local women in collaboration with municipalities, provinces, regions, that have faced the problem of administrative and financial support to such initiatives even before the central istitutions have.

Much of the research activity on particular aspects of the phenomenon, as well as action and awareness raising plans, have been made possible by funds provided to female associations and universities under the EU financing of the DAFNE Programme .

There is a positive side to it; over the last few years from 1997 to 2000, Italy’s initiatives in this field have tripled in number. This increase proves that all professionally and culturally involved subjects are strongly determined to participate actively and efficiently in the solution of this problem, provided that they receive adequate funding.

In 1998, a new Pilot Project, the “Anti-Violence Network of URBAN Towns of Italy” was launched, establishing a network of anti-violence centres in URBAN towns. This Research Project, providing for the analysis of the phenomenon in particularly degraded areas, has turned out very useful for assessing the skills and know-how of social care providers and local administrators in their prevention and assistance activities. This Project will be dealt with more extensively in the below paragraph 4.

To date, Italy sits at all Roundtables of EU and UN Bodies on violence against women, adding the value of the experience on the national territory and exchanging it with all involved women’s associations and Ministries, in particular with the Ministry of Interior, that organises special Police Academy courses and police station task forces on violence against women and minors, and the Ministry of Public Health.

The 1998 National Health Care Plan has been the first to list home accidents under the events disguising household violence.

Among the Ministry for Equal Opportunities’ worth mentioning initiatives is the National Conference ''Zero Tolerance'' (1998) dealing with violence against women, organised with the collaboration of the Municipal administration of Bologna, the local entity that has pursued the most consistent policy in that field, fully committed to urban security and easy living.

In 2000, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, together with the Superior Institute of Health, organised an International Conference on “Health Consequences of Violence against Women” and on “Health Care and Prevention Strategies” adopted in different EU and non-EU countries, and on the need for specific university training or equivalent to medical and paramedical health care providers.

Last but not least, in 2001 Laws no. 134 and no. 60 set forth free legal advice to indigent rape and abuse victims, an invaluable tool to defend themselves and safeguard their rights, most often resorted to in collaboration with anti-violence centres and courts.

In spite of the innumerable steps ahead, the way to go is still very long, in terms of knowledge, research and training – though the problem is unescapable for the community as a whole and accounts for a great cultural and political challenge.

Trafficking in human beings is one of the most wretched human rights violations. In the Italian scenario, most of the victims are women, trafficked for sexual exploitation, and, in some cases, for work and household slavery purposes.

Fighting this trade is considered a top priority at both the national and the international level. New measures and international cooperation tools have been adopted to prosecute traffickers; some of the relevant national criminal law provisions have been amended. So far, Italy is the only country that, in compliance with the directives of international bodies, has faced the issue of victim support introducing a clear-cut distinction between the responsibilities of trafficked women and those of the traffickers, by means of law provisions establishing help and protection programmes in favour of people reduced to slavery-like conditions, with particular attention to women forced into prostitution. By the same token, the Italian Government has readily and efficiently tackled the increasing emergency of trafficking in human beings by issuing the Legislative Decree no. 286 as of 25^th July 1998, “Unified Text of Provisions on Immigration and the Status of Foreign Citizens” and the Implementation Regulation enacted by Decree of the President of the Republic no. 394 of 31^st August 1999.

In particular, article 18 sets the requirements of special stay permit release. It outlines two parallel ways of obtaining a stay permit, social protection and judicial collaboration, independent of one another. Indeed, the release of a stay permit out of social protection reasons does not lay down any obligation to report to the police on the victim’s side. The resulting social and psychological recovery might pave the way for the victim’s trust in justice and possible decision to collaborate.

The stay permit application can be filed not only by the “Public Prosecutor, in cases where legal action is underway” but also by “the social services of Local Entities or no-profit associations and other types of associations” in charge of social protection projects. Subsequently, the local police authority issues the stay permit for humanitarian reasons.

In further enactment of the above Article no. 18, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities set up the Interministerial Commission provided for by the Article itself, which, in turn, started in the Autumn of 1998 a national social protection programme specially targeted for sexually-exploited women mimesized among street immigrant prostitutes. The Programme provides for two types of intervention:

A – Protection and Social Integration Projects, jointly financed by Local Entities (providing 30% of funds). From 1999 to 2001 154 such projects on the whole national territory were jointly financed, with the field activity of some 200 organisations and 700 social care providers, offering trafficked women social and psychological support, security shelters, basic Italian language courses, training and help in entering the labour market.

Such projects are targeted for women and minors victims of the sex trade and are articulated through different interlinked stages:

Social protection projects can be presented by regional, provincial and municipal administrations, as well as by private subject regularly enrolled in the Third Section of the Register of Associations, and by agencies active in supporting immigrants. Projects can last up to twelve months; in some cases, the Interministerial Commission has provided funding for so-called “continuity programmes”, too.

A closer look at data collected by institutions and NGOs corroborates the fact that the “Article 18 approach” has made possible quite a number of stay permits and, especially, an effective support network to victims of this trade.

A first-sight analysis of data reveals that during the first year of social protection projects (1999 to 2000) 833 victims of the trade obtained a stay permit under Article 18, whereas this number rose to 1,500 women in 2001.

No less interesting is the country of origin of trafficked women, with a strong prevalence of Nigerians (52% of whole), followed by Albanians (15%), Moldovans (7%) and Rumanians (5%).

B - Actions at the system level, i.e. action plans aimed at supporting projects such as the above, as well as granting not only the victims’ security, but also the coordination of the state action against organised crime – a permanent network among the institutions involved in crime-fighting operations (with particular reference to law enforcers and the judiciary), et al.

Worth mentioning supporting action include: the Toll-Free Number (800-290 290) Project, providing for a national centre and 14 local centres (involving some 80 call centre workers as a whole, covering roughly a dozen of foreign languages); the specific information campaign, advertising the toll-free number by radio and TV ads, posters and stickers to inform immigrant women and raise the awareness of the Italian public opinion; studies and surveys on trafficking, as well as targeted training for service providers active in social protection programmes, technical support and project monitoring; the programme “Ensuring Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration in the Countries of Origin of Trafficked Victims ” coordinated by the Minister of Interior with the collaboration of the International Organisation for Migration (IOM). A closer look at this programme reveals the goal of making voluntary assisted return an available and possible option, among those providing protected social and work reintegration in relevant countries of origin of system-level actions’ target subjects. Since the programme start (July 2001) to date some 80 cases have been dealt, with victims from different areas of origin (Moldova, Ukraine, Rumania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, the Slowak Republic, the federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Albania, Estonia, Bielarus); the research project presented by the Ministry of Justice “Trading in Persons for Exploitation Purposes and Trafficking in Immigrants ” aimed at building up a judicial procedures knowledge base by analysing the results of surveys taken by Public prosecutor offices across the Nation. This to improve the judicial response and potential victim protection and prevention actions, as well as to favour the development of international cooperation against organised crime. The project sets forth the drafting of a final synthetic report from the analysis of all processed data and acquired information.

To enhance contrasting actions, the Government has presented, at the invitation of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, the Bill on “Measures against the Trafficking in Persons”, transposing the directions contained in the U.N. Protocol on preventing, combating and repressing the trafficking in persons, signed during the Palermo Conference on 12^th December 2000, defining trafficking in human being as a specific crime in itself.

Article 1 of the above Bill transposes Article 600 of Italy’s Criminal Code, taking into account the difficulties in ascertaining the reduction to slavery – described in the Bill consistently with definitions as in the international agreements and EC provisions against trafficking in human beings – as the condition in which the victim of the crime, deprived of any dignity, becomes the object of powers corresponding to the property right or forced to render any services.

Moreover, it sets forth that, along with reduction to slavery, also reduction to servitude can be indicted, defined as the behaviour by which, by means of violence, threats or abuse of power, the crime victim is reduced in a state of continual physical or psychological submission, with the aim of inducing him or her to begging or to rendering sexual or work services: “anyone reducing or keeping a person to slavery is punished with imprisonment from eight to twenty years”; “anyone reducing or keeping a person to servitude is punished with imprisonment from five to fifteen years [...] these terms can be raised if the crimes as in this articles are committed against a child under eighteen years of age ”.

In Italy, the attention on the issue of Female Genital Mutilation (hereinafter, FGM), has finally increased in the last few years, after the Beijing Conference and the U.N. Conference on Sustainable Development, because of the increasing presence of migrant and/or refugee women from sub-Saharan Africa.

FGM is a complex and painful issue encompassing many aspects: gender relations, sexuality, health care, education, human rights, women’s and children rights, the right to development.

The fight against FGM requires following the steps of all subjects committed to promoting women’s health and welfare, and taking concrete actions, in the wake of African women’s commitment, through international cooperation and in the spirit of the World Health Organisation.

The Italian government’s first approach to the problem dates back to 1997, with the organisation of an International Seminary, attended by health care professionals and aimed at raise the awareness on how serious and widespread all over the world this plague was (in terms of number of women and countries involved), as well as on FGM’s terrible humanitarian and health care implications, let alone its impact in new generations of children and girls.

According to estimates, some 130 m women have undergone FGM, mainly in 28 African nations, along with some other countries in the world. There are over 30,000 Subsaharan women living in Italy, and this number is constantly rising. A new generation of immigrant or even native girls born of immigrants is already present in Italy, which will grow up there and somehow be exposed to the danger of being mutilated.

The right to self-determination and health of women (including immigrants), is a steady commitment of the Italian Government, to the extent that one of the Provisions under the Directive of the pro-tempore President of the Council of Ministers of 7^th March 1997 issued as a transposition of the Beijing Platform, openly condemns both private and public violence against women as a human rights violation.

FGM is part of this scenario in overt violation of human rights, in that it impairs the person’s integrity.

The above mentioned International Seminar, held with the collaboration of the Superior Health Institute and addressed to physicians, SRH centre staff, associations and universities has dealt with the origins of this practice, its scope and health care (gynaecological, obstetrical and psychiatrical) implications, outlining the various FGM practises and their too often overlooked effects.

In the search for additional cultural exchange tools, an Interministerial Multidiscliplinary Committee was established on the initiative of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, with the task of finding adequate answers and steadily monitoring the phenomenon.

The Committee, made up of experts, has conducted hearings with associations and experts, single women and care providers, has examined the existing documents and finally drafted the “National FGM guidelines”, directed to health and social care providers, schools, universities and health care centres, outlining the requirements for tackling the FGM problem, and gaining a deeper knowledge to act in the best of ways.

In Italy, an anti-FGM association of physicians has been established, whose members are mostly African, while in many important Italian hospitals doctors have teamed up in groups focusing on specialised care and deinfibulation.

In the framework of the cooperation for development, women’s associations active against FGM have launched awareness-raising campaigns, funded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the European Commission, and female politicians have promoted important events to discuss this issue.

The Study Group on “Equal Opportunities, Health Care and Protection of Citizens’ Rights” of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities is currently carrying out an in-depth analysis on this subject. The Group’s activities follow up the actions taken during the past legislature.

Nevertheless, tackling this problem also requires funds to support social and cultural projects and positive actions.

As underlined above, Italy has long been strongly committed to protecting women and young girls from being sexually mutilated and, more generally, safeguarding their rights at the international level.

The Italian delegation played an outstanding role during the 56^th session of the U.N. General Assembly, co-sponsoring the Resolution on “Traditional or customary practises affecting the health of women and girls” that condemns said practises as a serious form of violence against women and girls and a blatant violation of their fundamental human rights.

The aim of the resolution is the eradication of all customary practises bringing pain and physical impairment to young women, with particular reference to FGM, by prohibiting said practises and punishing the perpetrators.

This Resolution clearly demands all Countries ensure the respect of relevant international commitments and adopt national action plans to fight off such practises and effectively protect the right of women and girl to physical integrity and health. It further requires all Nations establish concrete measures to ensure the respect of human rights and fundamental liberties of women and girls, to improve the female condition favour their economic independence, to make it possible for them to refuse submitting to such practises and protect themselves to undergo health-impairing genital mutilations.

This Resolution, well aware of the deep cultural roots of FGM in some countries, underlines the key role of prevention and targeted dissemination of information and training, especially in more traditional settings, by means of, inter alia, women’s associations, traditional and religious leaders, school programmes, physicians and local administrators. This is to raise the awareness at all levels of the unacceptability of FGM, as a violation of fundamental rights not only of women and girls, but also of mankind as a whole.

This cultural action, difficult as it is confronted with ancient traditional roots, is starting to yield significant results. The case of the 700 Kenyan girls refusing infibulation, hence defying their own families and communities to protect themselves from what they perceive as an abuse, provides a dramatic yet important sign. No doubt a thoroughly new awareness is building up, worth being disseminated and advocated by supporting NGOs such as AIDOS in their successful projects in countries where FGM is still far from being eradicated.

Italy is determined to carry on its commitment, ensuring full collaboration to the international community, and closely monitoring the full transposition of the letter of the above Resolution and its provisions in the relevant multilateral agreements.

Still, concrete measures are badly needed, along with laws and funds allocations. Italy is working hard to establish such measures to eradicate at both the national and international level a ritual that is offensive for its victims and accounts for an overt and most serious violation of the individual right to physical integrity.

The Government has turned an attentive eye to the thorny issue of FGM, supporting the Bill defining FGM as a criminal law violation in itself and the extraterritoriality of prosecution, even if the crime is committed abroad by Italian citizens or foreign citizens residing in Italy. This Bill finally defines a specific crime for female genital mutilation, raising punishment terms from six to twelve years to perpetrators against Italian citizens or Italian residents, even if mutilation is practised abroad. The innovation here is increasing the length of imprisonment terms, as Italy’s Criminal Law already punishes all forms of mutilation inflicted by physicians without therapeutic reasons with three to six years of imprisonment and with aggravations provided for in case of minors or if the responsibility of the crime is shared by the holder of the parental authority.

With reference to the latest developments in the national scenario of violence against women, the Italian Government has started a system-level action, to date involving 26 Municipalities across the national territory. This pilot project, “Anti-violence network across Italy’s URBAN towns”, is part of Italy’s Community Initiative Programme Urban 1994-1999, aimed at improving deprived urban areas across Europe. The project was launched in 1998 and financed by EC funds; in its first stage, it teamed up the efforts of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, the Ministry of Infrastructures and Transportations, the European Commission and eight Italian municipal administrations: Venice, Rome, Naples, Foggia, Lecce, Reggio Calabria, Palermo and Catania.

The project’s goal is acquiring knowledge on violence against women, in terms of perception and scope, and investigating on the degree of security perceived by local populations of areas labelled as “critical”. In particular, the aim was tracing back the roots of violence within the household and outside.

A survey-action has been launched in particularly deprived areas to investigate on the perception of violence among men, women, social and health care providers, that can best testify the social conditions in critical urban settings, generally lacking specially targeted services.

The original project involved more than 15,000 people, in taking interviews alone: women, men, social and health care providers, teachers, law enforcers, selected witnesses. The results collected provide a wealth of knowledge worth treasuring, with an outline of the community’s mentality, the changes, the new demand for training and the services that need be established or strengthened to meet the needs of abused or raped women.

The results of the surveys taken in the above eight towns are listed in relevant “Local Survey Reports”; in 1999, a best practises handbook, “Female Liberty and Violence on Women”, was published and translated into English and French.

The combination of local surveys and national-level data make up the final “National Report”, closing a long and complex process teaming up private and public subjects in an unprecedented experience.

The continuous effort in processing and comparing each town’s data allowed detecting violence perception in men, women and service providers, the biases and stereotypes still underlying it, the innovative analysis methods and theories necessary to build up a common, effective strategy in fighting violence against women. All this was made possible by sharing knowledge, methodologies, and tools and by analysing the effectiveness of the various support approaches.

The collected wealth of data and personal histories is very complex to interpret, with all the similarities and differences it contains; yet, it represents an invaluable tool available to the whole community. There is hope that the towns that have already taken local surveys can work toward creating or improving services to offer immediate solidarity to women who have suffered from sexual, physical, psychological and economic violence, along with blackmails and harassment, in the view of curbing male violence in all forms outside and especially within households.

The “National Report” further corroborates the view that the practise and the culture of violence pervasively hides in social hardship settings, as is the case of URBAN neighbourhoods, as well as in well established communities with high degrees of schooling. Women showed a better understanding of the scope of this phenomenon and more radically changed their perception of violence and the damage it brings about at both the individual and the community level. This strong conviction emerged in the sampling phase, and was confirmed by in-depth interviews taken with women that had suffered violence and chose to share their experiences.

The achievements of the first project and the awareness that further deepening the knowledge of this phenomenon cannot but help defining new best practises, has prompted the Ministry for Equal Opportunities to enlarging the “Anti-Violence Network”, starting from URBAN cities left out of the EC Programming 1994 to 1999 (Genua, Trieste, Salerno, Bari, Catanzaro, Cosenza, Syracuse and Cagliari), by means of funds allocated for this purpose within the Programming 2000-2006. Thereafter, the “Network” was further enlarged to include Brindisi, Carrara, Caserta, Crotone, Misterbianco, Mola di Bari, Milan, Pescara and Taranto.

The above towns have already started running the programme along the steps listed below.

The Pilot Project “Anti-Violence Network Linking Italy’s URBAN Cities” articulates over field surveys, studies, analyses and workshops, as follows

1) field surveys on violence against women, and of relevant services and institutions active at various levels.

The first stage of the survey provides detecting violence cases collected by public and private services active in the field of violence within and outside family settings and by law enforcers in relevant areas. In the second stage, a survey form on knowledge and perception of violence will be handed out to a sample made up of social services care providers and selected witnesses. The survey is completed by interviews taken by specialised staff among women resident in URBAN areas. The analyses performed by local survey units are collected in a Survey Report containing all information and achievements in terms of methods as well as of contents.

A National Report drafted by the Scientific Committee will be published by the Ministry.

3) Publication of results and exchange of experiences and information among anti-violence care providers from member cities during a workshop called to present the initiative and seminars at the local and national level, including a closing seminar to present a common document to be signed by member cities on the future methodology of the network and outlooks on stregthening local policies on violence against women.

4) Joint Programming and future implementations of a database also through the publication of the national website of the anti-violence network to make the achievements available to the public.

Moreover, based on a Convention stipulated between the Ministry for Equal Opportunities and ISTAT, an in-depth analysis programme of violence against women was established in 2001. The programme provides for two main stages: the first is part of a broader analysis on victims’ profiles, aimed at estimating the dimension of sexual harassment, sexual blackmail in the workplace, and sexual violence in the women’s experience. Most important will be the sampling of victims and the behavioural profiles of perpetrators.

The second stage of the programme will encompass all aspects of violence and household abuse. A special form was compiled for the sampling of household violence and abuse in compliance with international recommendations all over the national territory. Taking such a complex survey for the first time in Italy’s history will undoubtedly require very accurate preliminary planning of sampling tools and survey methods. Roughly 1,000 women will be interviewed in the pilot survey, whereas the final stage, from 2004 to 2005, will cover 30,000 women. In-depth analyses of survey results will take up 2005 through 2006.

ISTAT has started working on this project in January 2002, and is currently defining the methodology and the survey form.

5. Enactment at the National Level of Law 269/98 against Sexual Exploitation of Minors (as of December 2001)

“The irresponsible wasting of many children‘s and adolescents’ lives and expectancies is not to be tolerated a single year, day, or hour longer; every one shares the duty of working towards the eradication of child exploitation".

Over the last few years, child abuse, violence, and sexual exploitation have polarised Italy’s public opinion’s, in the light of a new culture of protecting the minors’ rights, but also because of a series of painful cases that set off a strong social reaction, along with drawing the attention of the media and of public and private institutions.
Therefore, in the wake of the recent enactment of Law No. 269/98, “Provisions against the Exploitation of Youth Prostitution, Pornography and Sex Tourism as New Forms of Reduction to Slavery”, the National Commission for the coordination of actions against child abuse and sexual exploitation was established in February 1998. The works of the Commission were aimed at designing action strategies, essential to tackle this plague, to be taken on by Public Administrations with the collaboration of private social workers and the whole civil society. The Commission further outlined a programme aimed at a better knowledge and the surfacing of the phenomenon, to properly “take care” of the minors, to prevent and protect them from being abused, to promote a culture of children’s rights, and to make the community accountable for respecting such rights, also in accordance to provisions as in Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, passed by the U.N. in New York on 29^th November 1989 and ratified by Italy with Law no. 176/91. The Commission was active at the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, and the “Final Report” was one more step ahead in the process of enforcing children’s rights, set forth by Law No. 285/97, and by the National Plan for Childhood and Adolescence.

Further to the Commission’s efforts, in order to comply with Law 269/98, “Provisions against the Exploitation of Youth Prostitution, Pornography and Sex Tourism as New Forms of Reduction to Slavery”, a Coordinating Committee of prevention, assistance (including legal advice) and minors’ protection against sexual exploitation activities carried out by all public administrations was established in January 1999 at the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, as provided for in Article 17 of that Law. The Committee dovetailed the initiatives emerging from suggestions by representatives of the

Since its establishment, the Committee has taken part in the activities of the National Childhood Observatory, set up together with the Parliamentary Childhood Commission ex lege no. 451/97, as a restricted technical expert group on child abuse.

The Coordinating Committee is the result of the Government’s commitment to ensuring, at all institutional and operational levels, the best possible coordination and monitoring of the enactment of the newly issued Law, as well as the thoroughest planning of legislative, preventive and repressive actions, and the most exhaustive information and social prevention directed at teachers, families, pediatrists and children. The turnpike here was the drafting of staff training guidelines, and the thorough integration and coordination of activities carried out by all institutions involved in preventing and fighting child abuse. The resulting teamwork produced the “First Report to the Parliament on the State of Enactment of Law no. 269/98”, presented in July 2000, as provided for by that Law.

The activity of the Ministry of the Interior was integrated by the implementation of the circular letter of the General Direction of the Civil Service to local Police Authorities, issued in October 2000, that set forth new tools and safeguard actions against paedophilia. The directives thereto require drafting a half-yearly report on the trend of the phenomenon and on results achieved by the actions to be submitted to the Ministry of the Interior.

The Provincial Committees of some local Police Authorities set up restricted technical staff groups, to promote more effective methods of coordination among the relevant bodies, and to create a database to be made available to all partners involved in this fight. Said technical groups have laid down agreement protocols and action plans with guidelines for social and health care services to reporting and taking care of cases of child sexual and generic abuse. Further to this, the Coordinating Committee issued the “Directions for Training on child Abuse”, published in April 2001 on paper and on the Internet. Dating back to the same period is the “Report on the Condition of Children and Adolescents in Italy”, issued according to the provisions of Law no. 451/97.

Also worth quoting is the “Targeted Mother and Child Project” included in the “National Health Care Plan 1998 to 2000”, a programming tool made available to the Ministry of Health for enacting policies for the protection of childhood, motherhood and female health. Counselling centres and volunteer pediatrists are key for the achivement of these goals. The activity of counselling centres and pediatrists, along with programming aimed at supporting family ties of the minor, are the most efficient tools available to field workers, in accordance with Law no. 285/97, and need be supported and enhanced.

As regards to the framework of repressive interventions carried out by the Government, the foremost role of the Public Security Department of the Ministry of the Interior, and, in particular, the Postal and Telecommunications Police is worth mentioning: further to specific and exclusive assignments set forth by Law no. 269/98, this task force works 24/7 to enforce measures against web-based paedophilia. A constant Internet monitoring activity is focused on mushrooming paedopornographic sites, entered into a database, as well as on detecting the regular presence of certain users in thematic chartrooms and on bulletin boards. Such monitoring is carried out for prevention as well as repression purposes: in particular, centralised monitoring is indispensable for so-called undercover activities. Such tools, provided for and regulated by Law No. 269/98, require specific technical as well as investigative training. Therefore, this service trains in-house and outsourced staff that can be assigned to “undercover browsing” upon request of the judiciary.

A few more actions taken by the Government in this sensitive field are worth reminding: for six years now, at every police authority a “Rainbow” Unit has been active in protecting minors, with specially trained social workers (mostly female). Police, Carabinieri and Tax Police officers have been intensively trained on crimes against the youth. Moreover, further to the top priority circular letter of the Ministry of the Interior, police surveillance of places most often attended by children has been tightened in collaboration with local entities and volunteer workers; in turn, Postal and Telecommunications Police turns an increasingly attentive eye on Internet crimes at both the national and the international level. Also worth mentioning is the Agreement Protocol signed by ECPAT, the Department for Public Security – Postal and Telecommunications and Infostrada one of Italy’s foremost telecommunications company, aimed at drafting an ISP (Internet Service Providers) Behavioural Code.

6. Enactment at the National Level of Law 269/98 against Sexual Exploitation of Minors

The recent Decree of the Minister for Equal Opportunities, the honourable Stefania Prestigiacomo (dated as of 14^th February 2002) provides for the coordination of activities of all public administrations in the fields of abuse prevention, assistance (including legal advice) and protection of minors from being exploited and sexually abused under article 17, comma 1 of Law no. 269 of 3^rd August 1998.

In the light of the above, an Interministerial Committee for the Coordination of the Fight against Paedophilia (Comitato Interministeriale Coordinamento Lotta alla Pedofilia, acronymed as CICLOPE) has been established, whose first and significant action has been the “First National plan on Preventing and Fighting Paedophilia”, officially presented on 3^rd October 2002. The CICLOPE’s function is to coordinate all actions in the field of preventing and fighting paedophilia carried out by all state administrations.

The CICLOPE teams up the representatives of 11 Ministries, under the coordination of the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, and relies on the collaborations of international bodies and associations and by privately-run social care centres traditionally active in this field. This is aimed at fighting paedophilia with a consistent and coordinated approach, by means of actions dovetailing in a strategy focused on repression, prevention and victim assistance.

The first main goal of this coordinated approach is prompting a deeper involvement of the civil society. A wide range of unreported abuses emerges from analyses of the phenomenon, where perpetrators most often are a regular presence in their victims’ homes or schools. Victims are mostly young girls – 70% of confirmed victims are female.

Another key goal is the surfacing of the phenomenon, by establishing an Observatory to acquire data and information, at the national and international level, on prevention and repression actions, along with any details deemed useful for a better knowledge of this problem.

Amending the set of rules existing in Italy so as to strengthen legislation against Internet paedophiles’ crimes is also on the agenda: any innovations shall take into account the upcoming technical needs as well as all international initiatives, as web access crosses all national borders. Hindering the exchange of paedopornography over the web requires the providers adopt common standards and monitor web traffic, as well as the stipulation of international agreements for monitoring non-Italian sites; as for the risk of children being lured while browsing the web, the use of protection filters for children navigation will be promoted and awareness-raising campaigns will be launched in favour of responsible Internet access.

The programme also provides for the establishment of a “child abuse emergency” phone service for children and adolescents reporting abuse or any other serious difficulties. Meanwhile, a vast information campaign will be launched, directed to children through familiar channels such as cartoons and comics, and to grownups on the phenomenon in itself, on the available services to fight it, and to promote reporting child abuse within the family.

A key goal of the Government’s programme is enhancing integration between repression, assistance and recovery services. Resources will also be provided to establish therapeutic programmes for victims: once again, training and qualification of counsellors is fundamental. Tools for monitoring the efficiency of services will also be made available.

The school also plays a foremost role: the ideal place to listen to the moods of children and adolescents, it is the starting point for prevention and training for counsellors, families and the children themselves. Hence, integrated services will be set up to detect social hardship; meanwhile, the network connecting schools, health and social care centres, volunteer workers, juvenile courts and law enforcers will be further strengthened. Moreover, with the collaboration of Local Health Care Units, the counselling activity in favour of subjects suffering from any form of hardship will be promoted. Coordinated training for school counsellors, parents and social and health care providers will be of foremost importance.

CICLOPE will take part in international actions, in agreement with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and agencies at the EC and international level, active in protecting minors from sexual exploitation. Hence, the enforcement of international conventions for the protection of minors from sexual abuse and the repression of sex tourism will be promoted; the EU DAFNE and STOP Programmes will be enhanced, with the goal of preventing the worst forms of exploitation of minors. All programme activities will be marked with the CICLOPE logo, testifying the Committee’s involvement in the co-ordinated strategy against paedophilia.

The CEDAW Committee’s recommendations in the previous edition of this Report have been attentively evaluated by the Italian Government, which has in turn translated most of them into concrete actions.

As regards empowerment policies, a draft amendment to Article 51 of the Constitution was presented to grant equal access to public and elective offices, widely discussed in Chapter II of the Report hereto. This provision was already passed in second parliamentary deliberation by the Chamber of Deputies last September and sent to the Assembly for final approval, scheduled for the first months of 2003.

As to the recommendation of avoiding gender stereotypes in schoolbooks, the so-called PO.LI.TE Project has yielded a Self-Regulation Code of Conduct for Schoolbooks’ Publishers aimed at granting an equal representation of both genders in schoolbooks. This project is touched upon in Chapter III of this Report. The issue of “conciliation”, i.e. the fair distribution of household tasks and “responsibilities of care” will be specifically analysed in depth during the Italian Semester of EU Presidency.

Indirect discrimination has also long been targeted by the Ministry for Equal Opportunities, to reach actual social and workplace equality for every woman – a relentless commitment towards the best possible results.

Chapter VI extensively deals with household violence, introducing the Pilot Project “Anti-Violence Network of URBAN Towns” and the Italian Government’s efforts over the last four years in fighting trafficking of women and minors for sexual exploitation purposes. This commitment translated into legislation, with the passing of Legislative Decree no. 286/98 and the relevant Implementation Regulation, and into social initiatives such as the toll-free anti-trafficking phone line, advertised through specific campaigns, and the financing of Projects aimed at granting sex trade victims the option of voluntary return to their country of origin and at finding new judicial tools to improve all viable forms of victim protection. The Government has also committed itself to eradicating Female Genital Mutilation. To fight this plague with a scientific approach, an International Workshop was organised and an Inter-ministerial Multidisciplinary Committee was established, tasked with finding adequate strategies and steadily monitoring this phenomenon. In the light of this, the Ministry for Equal Opportunities took part in the 56^th session of the UN General Assembly and co-sponsored the Resolution on “Traditional or customary practises affecting the health of women and girls”, that bans FGM as a major form of violence against women and a blatant violation of their fundamental human rights. In this respect, the Government is also contributing to drafting a law introducing in Italy’s Criminal Code a specific FGM crime and raising the punishment terms in the case of mutilation inflicted to minors.

Through the EU Presidency Semester, the Italian Government will strengthen its efforts to make sure that the Draft Convention of the European Union will properly safeguard the women’s judicial position – and dignity.

STATISTICAL APPENDIX

Tab 1.1 - Population by sex and age 2001
	In thousands			Percentages
	MALES	FEMALES	MALES AND FEMALES	MALES	FEMALES	MALES AND FEMALES
AGE
0-5	1,663	1,568	3,231	5.9	5.3	5.6
6-14	2,646	2,472	5,118	9.5	8.4	8.9
15-19	1,559	1,509	3,068	5.6	5.1	5.3
20-24	1,679	1,644	3,323	6.0	5.6	5.8
25-29	2,022	1,974	3,996	7.2	6.7	7.0
30-34	2,285	2,277	4,562	8.2	7.7	7.9
35-39	2,515	2,465	4,980	9.0	8.4	8.7
40-44	2,161	2,117	4,277	7.7	7.2	7.4
45-49	1,978	2,019	3,997	7.1	6.8	7.0
50-54	1,916	2,000	3,917	6.9	6.8	6.8
55-59	1,653	1,652	3,305	5.9	5.6	5.8
60-64	1,572	1,682	3,254	5.6	5.7	5.7
65-69	1,386	1,702	3,089	5.0	5.8	5.4
70-74	1,350	1,672	3,021	4.8	5.7	5.3
75 and over	1,584	2,728	4,312	5.7	9.3	7.5
Total	27,969	29,482	57,451	100.0	100.0	100.0

Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo - Aspetti della vita quotidiana (Aspects of Daily Life) 2001

Tab. 1.2 - Population by Education Level, Age, and Sex (2001 Averages)

Age	Education Level	High School	Middle School		Elementary or none	TOTAL
MALES
Less than 15	-	-	5.7		94.3	100.0
15-24	0.5	39.2	56.3		4.0	100.0
25-34	10.0	44.5	40.4		5.0	100.0
35-44	10.8	36.9	44.6		7.7	100.0
45-54	11.1	30.8	35.6		22.6	100.0
55-64	7.5	18.1	26.7		47.6	100.0
65-74	5.0	10.5	18.3		66.3	100.0
75 and over	5.1	8.4	12.3		74.3	100.0
TOTAL	6.6	25.6	31.7		36.1	100.0
FEMALES
Less than 15	-	-	5.9	94.1		100.0
15-24	0.9	45.4	49.9	3.8		100.0
25-34	12.8	47.4	34.5	5.4		100.0
35-44	10.8	39.2	40.0	10.1		100.0
45-54	9.4	25.7	31.1	33.7		100.0
55-64	4.5	13.4	20.7	61.3		100.0
65-74	2.4	7.7	13.0	76.8		100.0
75 and over	1.7	5.4	8.7	84.2		100.0
TOTAL	5.8	24.3	26.2	43.7		100.0
MALES AND FEMALES
Less than 15	-	-	5.8	94.2		100.0
15-24	0.7	42.2	53.2	3.9		100.0
25-34	11.4	46.0	37.5	5.2		100.0
35-44	10.8	38.0	42.3	8.9		100.0
45-54	10.3	28.2	33.3	28.2		100.0
55-64	6.0	15.7	23.6	54.7		100.0
65-74	3.6	9.0	15.4	72.1		100.0
75 and over	2.9	6.5	10.0	80.6		100.0
TOTAL	6.2	24.9	28.9	40.0		100.0

Source: Istat, Rilevazione trimestrale delle forze di lavoro (Work Force Quarterly Report) 2001

PERSONS LIVING ALONE			5,640	25.8
males living alone	1,879	8.6
females living alone	3,337	15.3
other	423	1.9

FAMLIES	15,918	72.9

FAMILY MEMBERS LIVING APART	15,080	69.1
Couples without children	4,113	18.8
Couples with children	9,258	42.4
Single parents, males	255	1.2
Single parents, females	1,454	6.7

FAMLIY MEMBERS LIVING TOGETHER	838	3.8
Couples without children	243	1.1
Couples with children	463	2.1
Single parents, males	23	0.1
Single parents, females	109	0.5

FAMILIES WITH MORE THAN ONE FAMILY UNIT	267	1.2

TOTAL	21,824	100.0


Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo - Aspetti della vita quotidiana (Aspects of Daily Life) 2000-2001

Sources:

1995: Nascite: caratteristiche demografiche e sociali - Anno 1994 - ISTAT (Births: Social and Demographic Characteristics, 1994)

4th Annual Report 1998

1996: Nascite: caratteristiche demografiche e sociali - Anno 1994 - ISTAT (Births: Social and Demographic Characteristics, 1994)

5th Annual Report 2000 (ISTAT)

1997 and 1998: estimated data

1999 and 2000: provisional data taken from number of birth certificates registrations


TOTAL			81.1	71.7
AGE AT TIME OF BIRTH
less than 30			80.7	71.1
30-35			81.7	72.9
36 and over			80.5	69.8
EDUCATION LEVEL
High School or University Degree			84.1	75.3
Middel School Diploma			79.2	69.2
Elementary School Diploma or None			72.5	59.7
EMPLOYMENT STATUS
Employed			82.6	74.2
House Wife	78.0	68.0

(a) X 100
(b) X 100

Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo sulle famiglie Condizioni di salute e ricorso ai servizi sanitari (Survey of Family Health and Medical Service Visits) 1999 - 2000


YEARS						15-19				20-24	25-29	30-34	35-39	40-44	45-49


1980						6.2				21.6	25.1	24.8	19.3	9.6	1.2
1981						6.5				22.4	25.8	24.2	21.3	9.9	1.2
1982						7.0				23.1	27.4	25.7	22.5	10.4	1.3
1983						6.7				22.8	26.7	25.2	22.5	10.4	1.4
1984						6.5				21.7	25.9	25.5	22.5	10.4	1.3
1985						5.7				19.3	23.6	23.6	20.2	9.8	1.3
1986						5.2				17.5	21.9	22.4	18.2	10.1	1.2
1987						5.0				16.2	20.4	21.6	17.5	10.0	1.2
1988						4.7				15.3	19.0	19.9	16.6	9.7	1.1
1989						4.7				14.4	18.2	19.1	16.4	8.8	1.1
1990						4.5				13.7	17.2	18.4	15.8	8.3	1.0
1991						4.5				13.2	16.1	17.5	15.3	7.6	1.1
1992						4.6				12.8	15.2	16.4	14.4	7.1	1.0
1993						4.7				12.5	14.5	15.7	13.7	6.7	0.9
1994						5.8				12.2	13.4	14.1	12.2	6.6	0.6
1995						6.1				12.2	13.1	13.4	11.9	5.7	0.5
1996						6.4				12.5	13.0	13.3	11.8	5.6	0.5
1997						6.6				13.0	13.3	13.2	11.8	5.5	0.5
1998	6.8	13.7	13.4	12.8	11.2	5.4	0.5
1999	7.1		14.2	13.7		12.9		11.2	5.2	0.5
2000*	7.0	14.2	13.5	12.5	10.5	4.8	0.5
* Provisional Data

Cases of Recovery in Bed for more than 7 Days

Recovery in less than 7 Days

Recovery in more than 7 Days

TOTAL

AGE AT TIME OF BIRTH

under 30

30-35

36 and lolder

LEVEL OF EDUCATION

Secondary School or University

Middle School Diploma

Elementary School Diploma or None

EMPLOYMENT STATUS

Employed

Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo sulle famiglie Condizioni di salute e ricorso ai servizi sanitari (Survey of Family Health and Medical Service Visits) 1999 - 2000


									At risk during pregancy				At risk During Pregancy
									At risk during pregancy				At risk During Pregancy
	in thousands			%			in thousands		%	in thousands	%	in thousands		%

664	27.2	271	11.1	214	8.7	180	7.4

267	26.9	95	9.5	95	9.5	78	7.8
291	27.2	127	11.9	84	7.8	79	7.4
106	27.8	49	12.7	35	9.2	22	5.9

326	27.8	156	13.4	89	7.6	80	6.9
299	26.7	103	9.2	109	9.8	87	7.7
38	25.2	11	7.1	15	9.8	13	8.3

328	27.2	129	10.7	101	8.3	99	8.2
House Wife	227	25.4	93	10.5	77	8.6	56	6.3

1998

2001

1998

2001

MALES AND FEMALES

North West

3.8

4.0

2.3

2.8

North East

3.4

3.6

2.7

2.5

Central

4.5

5.3

2.6

2.4

South

5.5

4.6

5.6

3.9

Islands

7.5

5.9

7.1

5.2

ITALY

4.9

4.6

4.0

3.3

MALES

North West

3.7

4.4

2.1

2.8

North East

3.9

3.8

3.1

2.2

Central

4.2

4.8

2.6

2.1

South

5.7

4.8

5.4

4.1

Islands

8.3

6.6

7.7

5.3

ITALY

5.1

4.8

4.0

3.3

FEMALES

North West

4.0

3.6

2.6

2.7

North East

2.8

3.3

2.3

2.8

Central

4.8

5.7

2.6

South

5.2

4.4

5.7

3.8

Islands

6.6

5.2

6.4

5.0

ITALY

4.7

4.4

3.9

3.3

YOUNG PERSONS WITHOUT A MIDDLE SCHOOL DIPLOMA

AGE 15 -19

AGE 20 -24

Source: Istat, Rilevazione trimestrale delle forze di lavoro Anni (Work Force Quarterly Report) 1998 - 2001

North West

2.9

1.1

2.3

1.1

North East

1.7

1.2

2.0

1.5

Central

3.0

0.7

1.9

1.2

South

2.1

0.5

1.6

0.7

Islands

1.4

1.2

2.4

1.0

ITALY

2.3

0.9

2.0

1.1

						AGE 15 -19		AGE 20 -24
	1998	2001		1998	2001
			MALES AND FEMALES

								MALES
North West						3.2	1.0		2.1	1.0
North East						1.1	1.4		1.6	1.2
Central						2.8	0.7		1.9	1.1
South						2.0	0.4		1.1	0.6
Islands						1.7	1.3		1.9	0.7
ITALY						2.2	0.9		1.7	0.9
								FEMALES
North West						2.7	1.2		2.4	1.2
North East						2.3	1.0		2.5	1.9
Central						3.2	0.7		2.0	1.3
South						2.2	0.5		2.2	0.9
Islands						1.2	1.2		2.8	1.2
ITALY						2.4	0.9		2.3	1.2

Source: Rilevazione Trimestrale delle Forze di Lavoro (Work Force Quarterly Report)
* Participants in regional work training programs for every 100 young person of appropriate age
** Organized and Recognized by the Region
Note: during the school year 1999-2000, school reform took place
(increase in scholastic requirements)


Males	3,579	3,583	466	387
Females	2,263	2,408	545	467
Total	5,842	5,991	1,011	854
	35-54
	35-54
Males	6,803	7,310	310	284
Females	3,716	4,278	381	365
Total	10,518	11,588	691	650
		55-64

Males		1,360	1,319	67	61
Females		529	565	25	24
Total		1,889	1,885	92	85

						65 and over

Males		250	254	4	3
Females		95	91	5	5
Total		345	345	9	8

Source: Istat, Collana annuari Forze di Lavoro - Medie (Annual Average Work Force Survey) 1998 - 2001

Tab. 4.2 - Employment and Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age

	EMPLOYMENT RATES	UNEMPLOYMENT RATES
	EMPLOYMENT RATES
	1998	1999	2000	2001	1998	1999	2000	2001
		Total

Males		61.5	61.5	61.6	61.5	9.1	8.8	8.1	7.3
Females						34.8	35.3	35.8	36.4	16.3	15.7	14.5	13.0
Total						47.6	47.9	48.2	48.5	11.8	11.4	10.6	9.5
	15-24

Males	42.0	41.0	41.0	39.4	29.8	29.2	27.6	25.0
Females		33.9	34.0	34.3	32.6	39.0	37.4	35.4	32.2
Total		38.0	37.5	37.7	36.0	33.8	32.9	31.1	28.2
		25-34

Males	87.0	87.1	87.1	86.9	11.5	11.3	10.8	9.8
Females									33.9	34.0	34.3	32.6	39.0	37.4	35.4	32.2
Total									74.4	74.8	75.2	75.6	14.8	14.5	13.6	12.5

65 and over

Females	52.7	54.1								55.1		56.7		9.3		9.1		8.6		7.9
		Total		29.0	29.0						29.0		29.2		4.6		4.8		4.5		4.3



Males		6.3	5.9	5.8	6.0	1.6	1.5	1.1	1.2
Females	15.7	15.8	16.1	16.9	4.5	5.3	4.7	4.1
Total	3.6	3.4	3.3	3.4	2.6	2.6	2.5	2.2

Source: Istat, Collana annuari Forze di Lavoro - Medie (Annual Average Work Force Survey) 1998 - 2001

ITALY

YEAR	RATE OF EMPLOYMENT	RATE OF UNEMPLOYEMENT	RATE OF UNEMPLOYMENT FOR EXTENDED PERIOD
		M	F	MF	M	F	MF	M	F	MF
1994	62.6	33.3	47.4	8.6	15.4	11.1	4.3	8.1	5.7
1995	61.9	33.5	47.1	9.0	16.2	11.6	4.8	8.7	6.2
1996	61.6	33.9	47.2	9.0	16.1	11.6	5.0	8.9	6.5
1997	61.4	34.1	47.2	9.0	16.2	11.7	5.2	9.1	6.7
1998	61.5	34.8	47.6	9.1	16.3	11.8	5.4	9.5	6.9
1999	61.5	35.3	47.9	8.8	15.7	11.4	5.3	9.4	6.9
2000	61.6	35.8	48.2	8.1	14.5	10.6	5.0	8.8	6.5
2001	61.5	36.4	48.5	7.3	13.0	9.5	4.5	8.0	5.9
NORTH

	M	F	MF	M	F	MF	M	F	MF
1994	63.8	37.8	50.3	4.7	10.1	6.8	1.6	4.1	2.6
1995	63.3	38.1	50.2	4.3	10.1	6.6	1.6	4.2	2.7
1996	63.0	38.8	50.4	4.1	10.0	6.4	1.6	4.3	2.7
1997	62.7	39.1	50.4	4.0	9.8	6.3	1.5	4.1	2.6
1998	62.6	39.5	50.6	3.8	9.4	6.1	1.4	3.9	2.4
1999	62.7	40.1	51.0	3.4	8.3	5.4	1.3	3.6	2.2
2000	62.9	40.8	51.4	3.0	7.1	4.7	1.1	2.8	1.8
2001	62.9	41.3	51.7	2.7	5.9	4.0	1.0	2.3	1.5
CENTRAL

		M	F	MF	M	F	MF	M	F	MF
1994		61.8	34.4	47.5	6.5	14.1	9.4	3.1	7.3	4.7
1995		61.2	34.9	47.5	7.2	14.7	10.1	3.6	8.1	5.3
1996		60.8	35.2	47.5	7.2	14.1	9.9	3.8	7.8	5.4
1997		60.5	35.4	47.4	6.9	14.3	9.8	3.8	8.0	5.4
1998		60.4	35.7	47.5	6.9	13.6	9.5	3.7	7.6	5.2
1999		60.5	36.8	48.1	6.6	13.2	9.2	3.8	7.7	5.4
2000		60.5	37.3	48.4	6.1	11.6	8.3	3.6	7.2	5.0
2001		60.4	38.1	48.7	5.4	10.3	7.4	3.2	6.2	4.4
SOUTH AND ISLANDS

										M	F	MF	M	F	MF	M	F	MF
1994										61.3	26.7	43.4	15.1	26.4	18.7	8.8	16.0	11.1
1995										60.3	26.6	42.9	16.3	28.9	20.4	9.7	17.8	12.3
1996										60.1	26.6	42.8	16.7	29.4	20.8	10.5	18.7	13.1
1997										60.1	26.9	42.9	17.1	30.0	21.3	11.1	19.5	13.8
1998										60.8	28.1	43.9	17.5	30.8	21.9	11.6	21.0	14.7
1999										60.4	28.2	43.8	17.3	31.3	22.0	11.4	21.5	14.8
2000										60.4	28.4	43.9	16.3	30.4	21.0	10.9	21.4	14.4
2001										60.1	29.0	44.0	14.8	28.1	19.3	10.0	20.1	13.4

Tab. 4.4 - Employment rates by sex, age, and geographic distribution
Year	MALES	FEMALES	TOTAL
	15-24				25-34					35-54									55-64				65 and over	Totale	15-24	25-34	35-54	55-64	65 and over	Totale	15-24	25-34	35-54	55-64	65 and over	Total
NORTH

1998	41.9				87.5					90.2									35.2				6.8	60.3	33.3	68.1	55.5	13.9	1.7	35.8	37.7	78.0	73.0	24.2	3.7	47.5
1999	41.4				87.9					91.0									35.6				6.4	60.6	34.8	69.3	57.3	14.3	1.8	36.8	38.2	78.8	74.3	24.6	3.7	48.3
2000	41.9				88.6					91.7									34.9				6.3	61.0	36.0	70.9	59.6	14.6	1.6	37.9	39.0	80.0	75.8	24.5	3.5	49.0
2001	41.7				88.7					92.5									34.1				6.4	61.2	35.1	72.6	61.8	15.4	1.6	38.9	38.4	80.8	77.4	24.5	3.5	49.7
CENTRAL

1998				27.2		76.8	90.4	44.9	6.4	56.2	19.7	51.2	53.0	18.0	1.7	30.8	23.6	64.0	71.5	30.9	3.7	43.0
1999				28.2		77.3	90.6	44.0	6.1	56.5	20.2	53.1	54.8	18.5	1.8	31.9	24.3	65.2	72.5	30.7	3.6	43.7
2000				29.1		78.1	90.7	43.1	5.9	56.8	22.2	56.1	55.6	18.8	1.4	33.0	25.7	67.1	73.0	30.5	3.3	44.4
2001				27.0		79.9	90.4	43.8	6.0	57.1	22.9	57.3	58.2	18.9	1.5	34.1	25.0	68.6	74.2	30.9	3.4	45.1
SOUTH AND ISLANDS

1998	19.0	63.4	83.3	48.8	5.3	50.1	9.5	26.3	34.8	14.6	1.5	19.4	14.3	44.7	58.8	30.9	3.1	34.2
1999	18.2	63.3	83.2	48.3	4.8	50.0	9.5	25.9	35.3	13.7	1.2	19.4	13.9	44.5	59.0	30.3	2.7	34.2
2000	19.0	63.3	83.6	48.8	4.9	50.6	9.9	26.5	35.4	14.2	1.3	19.8	14.5	44.8	59.3	30.8	2.8	34.6
2001	19.9	64.5	83.9	48.2	5.3	51.2	10.5	28.6	36.4	15.9	1.3	20.9	15.2	46.5	59.9	31.4	3.0	35.5
ITALY

1998

29.5

77.0

1999

29.0

77.2

2000

29.6

77.7

2001

29.5

78.5


	87.9	41.4	6.2	55.9	20.7	49.7	47.8	15.0	1.6	29.1	25.2	63.5	67.8	27.7	3.5	42.0
	88.3	41.2	5.8	56.1	21.3	50.5	49.1	15.0	1.6	29.8	25.2	64.0	68.7	27.6	3.4	42.4
88.8	40.9	5.8	56.6	22.1	52.0	50.4	15.3	1.5	30.6	26.0	65.0	69.6	27.7	3.2	43.1
89.2	40.4	6.0	56.9	22.1	53.7	52.3	16.2	1.5	31.7	25.9	66.2	70.7	28.0	3.3	43.8


1998	50.9	22.9	8.6	7.5	3.3	17.5	64.3	40.1	17.1	6.1	7.0	30.8	56.2	28.9	11.3	7.2	4.3	21.9
1999	51.0	22.9	8.8	7.4	2.5	17.3	64.5	41.5	17.0	8.1	10.6	31.3	56.6	29.5	11.4	7.5	4.8	22.0
2000	49.3	22.0	8.1	7.1	1.8	16.3	63.1	40.6	17.1	7.6	8.5	30.4	55.0	28.6	11.0	7.2	3.7	21.0
2001	44.2	20.5	7.6	7.3	2.2	14.8	60.0	37.7	16.5	6.4	5.1	28.1	50.8	26.8	10.5	7.1	3.0	19.3
ITALY

Source: Istat, Collana annuari Forze di Lavoro - Medie (Annual Survey of the Work Force, Averages) 1998 - 2001

Tab. 4.10 - Occupations by sex and field of economic activity (data in thousands)

YEAR	Agriculture	Indusry	Commerce	Hotels and restaurants	Shipping and Communications	International monetary and financial trading	Services, small businesses	Public admin., Military, Welfare	Education, Health and other social services	Other public and social services and aid to individuals	Total services	TOTAL

MALES
1998			810	5.106	2.077	378	884	474	694	1.174	979	514	7.174	13.090
1999			779	5.140	2.066	400	910	471	737	1.181	962	512	7.240	13.158
2000			769	5.134	2.110	434	954	461	811	1.192	939	513	7.414	13.316
2001			764	5.194	2.108	463	938	449	836	1.218	956	528	7.497	13.455
FEMALES
1998			391	1.624	.189	298	213	259	463	600	1.728	579	5.330	7.345
1999			355	1.611	1.242	339	223	267	531	607	1.771	587	5.567	7.533
2000			351	1.633	1.267	380	236	272	595	624	1.816	588	5.779	7.764
2001			363	1.646	1.308	417	242	285	638	670	1.886	605	6.051	8.060
MALES AND FEMALES
1998			1.201	6.730	3.266	676	1.097	733	1.157	1.774	2.707	1.093	12.504	20.435
1999			1.134	6.750	3.308	739	1.133	738	1.269	1.788	2.734	1.099	12.807	20.692
2000			1.120	6.767	3.377	814	1.190	733	1.407	1.816	2.755	1.101	13.193	21.080
2001			1.126	6.841	3.416	880	1.180	735	1.474	1.888	2.842	1.132	13.548	21.514


YEAR	Agriculture	Indusry		Commerce			Hotels and restaurants		Shipping and Communciations	International monetary and financial trading			Services, small businesses		Public administration, Military, Welfare	Education, Health and other social services				Other public and social services and aid to individuals	Total services		TOTAL

MALES
1998	6.2		39.0		15.9	2.9		6.8			3.6	5.3		9.0			7.5	3.9	54.8			100.0
1999	5.9		39.1		15.7	3.0		6.9			3.6	5.6		9.0			7.3	3.9	5.0			100.0
2000	5.8		38.6		15.8	3.3		7.2			3.5	6.1		9.0			7.1	3.8	5.7			100.0
2001	5.7		38.6		15.7	3.4		7.0			3.3	6.2		9.1			7.1	3.9	5.7			100.0
FEMALES
1998														5.3			22.1	16.2	4.1			2.9		3.5	6.3	8.2	23.5	7.9	2.6	100.0
1999														4.7			21.4	16.5	4.5			3.0		3.5	7.1	8.1	23.5	7.8	3.9	100.0
2000														4.5			21.0	16.3	4.9			3.0		3.5	7.7	8.0	23.4	7.6	4.4	100.0
2001														4.5			20.4	16.2	5.2			3.0		3.5	7.9	8.3	23.4	7.5	5.1	100.0


SEX	YEAR	HOUSEHOLD WORK (HOURS)
		0	1-4	4-7	7-14	14-21	21-28	28-40	40	40 +
Males		35.7	19.9	14.3	16.5	8.0	1.8	2.8	0.6	1.0
Females	1998	7.9	5.3	5.7	11.4	14.4	6.8	22.2	6.7	26.2
Total	21.3	12.3	9.9	13.9	11.3	4.4	12.9	3.7	14.1

Males	1999	40.7	18.2	12.7	15.2	7.9	1.6	2.6	0.6	1.1
Females	14.2	4.9	5.6	11.0	13.8	6.8	20.5	6.1	23.2
Total	27.0	11.3	9.0	13.0	11.0	4.3	11.9	3.5	12.5

Males	2000	47.8	15.9	11.5	13.3	7.0	1.4	2.2	0.4	1.0
Females	11.4	5.2	5.7	12.3	14.7	6.4	21.2	6.8	23.1
Total	28.9	10.4	8.5	12.8	11.0	4.0	12.0	3.7	12.4
									2001

Tab. 5.2 Time devoted to household work by employed men and women 1998 - 2001

SEX	YEAR	HOUSEHOLD WORK (HOURS)
		0	1-4	4-7	7-14	14-21	21-28	28-40	40	40 +
Males		35.7	22.8	15.7	16.4	6.4	1.1	1.4	0.3	0.5
Females	1998	4.7	5.6	6.4	16.3	22.7	9.1	23.6	5.4	11.5
Total	24.3	16.5	12.3	16.3	12.4	4.1	9.6	2.2	4.6

Males	1999	39.6	21.9	13.8	15.1	6.4	1.1	1.7	0.4	0.4
Females	6.5	5.5	7.2	16.7	21.1	10.1	22.5	5.5	10.4
Total	27.3	15.8	11.3	15.7	11.9	4.4	9.4	2.3	4.1

Males	2000	47.5	18.7	12.5	13.1	5.8	0.9	1.2	0.3	0.3
Females				6.8	6.1	6.9	17.8	22.9	9.1	21.2	5.4	9.3
Total				32.3	14.0	10.4	14.8	12.2	4.0	8.7	2.2	3.7

1998

1999

2000

2001

Tab. 5.3 Time devoted to household work by housewives 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001

YEAR	HOUSEHOLD AND OUTSIDE-THE-HOME WORK
	0-7		7-34			34-40			40-50	50-55	55-60	60-70	70 +
	5.6	26.1	16.8		19.7	1.4	12.0	10.6	7.8
13.5	24.5	16.0	17.0	1.1	10.1	10.1	7.7
8.4	27.2	16.9	18.4	1.0	11.1	10.4	6.6
8.0	29.4	17.9	18.2	1.1	10.9	8.3	6.2

Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo sulle famiglie Aspetti della vita quotidiana (Aspects of Daily Life)

SEX										YEAR			HOUSEHOLD AND OUTSIDE-THE-HOME WORK (HOURS)
		0-7	7-34	34-40	40-50	50-55	55-60	60-70	70+
Males		27.2								17.5	12.6			22.4		6.4		5.6		5.2		3.0
Females	1998	13.0								25.0	11.6			16.2		4.0		10.0		10.3		9.9
Total	19.8	21.4	12.1	19.2	5.2	7.9	7.9	6.6

Males	1999	30.0	16.4	12.8	21.5	6.0	5.8	4.6	3.0
Females	18.5									23.6		11.1			14.9		4.1		8.3		10.3		9.3
Total	24.0									20.1		11.9			18.1		5.0		7.1		7.6		6.2

Males	2000									30.3		15.3			15.2		21.1		5.5		5.5		4.6	2.6
Females	15.4	25.0	12.1	15.9	4.0	9.1	10.0	8.5
Total	22.6	20.3	13.6	18.4	4.7	7.3	7.4	5.6
										2001

															0-7	7-34	34-40	40-50	50-55	55-60	60-70	70 e più
Males		1.7	4.6	20.1	38.5	11.4	9.5	9.0	5.2
Females	1998	0.7	5.0	6.9	21.1	10.9	14.8	18.9	21.7
Total	1.3	4.7			15.2			32.1			11.2	11.5	12.7	11.3

Males	1999	3.3	4.6	20.9	37.5	10.7	10.0	7.9	5.0
Females	2.0	5.2	7.2	21.8	11.5	13.0	19.4	19.9
Total	2.9	4.8	15.8	31.7	11.0	11.1	12.2	10.5

Males		2000	3.3	5.6	24.7	35.7	9.4	9.1	7.7	4.4
Females	1.6	6.4	8.7	22.8	11.2	13.2	18.3	17.9
Total	2.7	5.9	18.7	30.9	10.1	10.7	11.6	9.4
		2001
Males	4.0	5.8	26.5	37.6	8.7	7.9	6.0	3.6
Females	1.8	7.3	8.7	24.4	11.0	14.0	17.2	15.5
Total	3.1	6.4	19.7	32.6	9.6	10.2	10.3	8.1

Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo sulle famiglie Aspetti della vita quotidiana (Aspects of Daily Life)

1997	12.0	11.6	13.1	22.3	16.3	13.4
1998	11.8	11.7	12.2	22.7	14.1	13.7
1999	11.9	11.7	12.6	22.9	15.4	12.9
2000	12.3	12.3	12.3	24.3	13.2	14.2
2001	12.0	12.0	WorldLII: Copyright Policy \| Disclaimers \| Privacy Policy \| Feedback URL: http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNCEDAWSPR/2004/9.html

Gender	Maternal School	Primary School	Secondary School	High School	TOTAL

Male	20,492	41,428	24,665	11,903	98,488
Female	16,331	35,234	19,554	12,160	83,279
TOTAL	36,823	76,662	44,219	24,063	181,767

Region	MF	F	% of FS on total
EU Countries	4,929	2,349	47.66
Non-EU European Countries	75,693	35,500	46.90
Africa	51,681	22,745	44.01
America	21,825	10,712	49.08
Asia	27,374	11,842	43.26
Oceania and other regions	265	127	48.02
TOTAL	181,767	83,275	45.82

Tab. 1.3 Number of members per family (2000-2001)
	X 1,000	Percentages
Number of Members
One	5,217	23.9
Two	5,611	25.7
Three	5,046	23.1
Four	4,394	20.1
Five or more	1,556	7.1
Total	21,824	100.0

Source: Istat, Indagine Multiscopo - Aspetti della vita quotidiana Anni (Aspects of Daily Life) 2000-2001

Tab. 4.1 – Employed and unemployed by sex

	EMPLOYED	UNEMPLOYED
	EMPLOYED	UNEMPLOYED
						TOTAL (per 1000)

Males						13,090	13,455	1,313	1,066
Females						7,345	8,060	1,431	1,201
TOTAL						20,435	21,514	2,745	2,267
	15-24

Males	1,098	989	467	330
Females	743	717	475	340
TOTAL	1,842	1,706	942	670
					25-34

									35-54

Males	91.9								92.2	92.4	92.6	4.4	4.2	3.9	3.7
	61.6	62.3	63.0	64.1	19.4	19.0	17.5	16.2
72.3	73.1	73.7	74.7	6.2	6.0	5.6	5.3
	55-64

United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women - State Party Reports