Home | Databases | WorldLII | Search | Feedback United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women - State Party Reports

United Republic of Tanzania - Combined fourth, fifth and sixth periodic reports of States parties [2007] UNCEDAWSPR 10; CEDAW/C/TZA/6 (16 April 2007)

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination

against Women

Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

Combined fourth, fifth and sixth periodic reports of States parties

Tanzania*

* The present report is being issued without formal editing.

For the initial report submitted by the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania, see CEDAW/C/5/Add.57, which was considered by the Committee at its ninth session. For the combined second and third periodic report, see CEDAW/C/TZA/2-3, which was considered by the Committee at its nineteenth session.

Contents

Foreword

CEDAW REPORT

The United Republic of Tanzania is committed to the implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Since the submission of the second and third periodic reports significant achievements have been recorded in the areas of legal and human rights; strengthening of institutional mechanisms for gender equality and equity, women’s economic empowerment and access to social services such as health and education. These achievements are in no way the end of the road goal, rather they will give way to further action, affirmative or otherwise, with a view to intensifying the process of gender equality and equity. The introduction of gender focal points in sectoral ministries and other government structures has further accelerated gender mainstreaming in policies, programmes, strategies and activities of the concerned sector.

Tanzania’s fourth report has been long overdue and thus this report will be a combination of the fourth, fifth and sixth periodic country reports. The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania through the Ministry of Community Development Gender and Children has made this report as thorough and detailed as possible through a consultative process with stakeholders. It is indeed important to note that CEDAW is the guide to our country’s gender equality programmes and human rights issues.

We are confident that this report will open up what lies ahead in the implementation of CEDAW and in fulfilling other regional and international commitments. The challenges outlined in this report will not, but give us the crucial push to forge ahead, to ensure that we contribute to sustainable development of our country.

I would like to thank our development partners who in many ways supported us in the process of preparing this report. I wish to make special mention of UNFPA and UNDP. We look forward to continued collaboration with them and other partners. I would also like to acknowledge the contribution of Government Ministries, various institutions and the civil society for their contribution and support, which enabled us to complete this report.

Charts and Tables

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Part I

Overview

1.1 Introduction

1. The United Republic of Tanzania is signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. In fulfilment of its obligations as signatory to the Convention, Tanzania is required to submit periodic implementation reports on actions undertaken to eliminate gender discrimination. A CEDAW Committee that reviews performance requires States parties to submit one report in every four years. This report however, covers three periods, namely the fourth report from 1998 – 2001 and the fifth and sixth reports from 2002 – 2005.

2. The preparation of the reports involved various stakeholders including the Government, civil societies and development partners. In the process of preparing the reports, exhaustive consultations were made through workshops, seminars and meetings. The outcome of that process is this report that is made up of three parts as per CEDAW committee guidelines. Part I is on overview of the country situation. Part II is on responses to Committee’s comments on the 2^nd and 3^rd combined periodic reports submitted to the CEDAW committee in 1998 and Part III is on measures taken to implement the CEDAW within the period of these reports.

3. Overall the reports demonstrate a high level of Government commitment and political will to CEDAW in terms of actions to combat gender discrimination and bring about gender equality and equity. Significant achievements realised during the reporting period include review of the Constitution, Laws, enactment of new laws, formulation and implementation of policies, strategies and programmes with a gender perspective. Awareness raising on measures to combat gender discrimination is also high and victims have started to demand for their rights and have acquired them. Similarly, there have been challenges in implementing CEDAW. Male domination still exists and efforts are required to change gender relations positively. Otherwise compared to the situation reported in the 2^nd and 3^rd reports, there has been considerable improvement in eliminating discrimination against women.

1.2 Situation analysis

1.2.1 Geographical

4. The United Republic of Tanzania is a Union of two countries, Mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar. Tanzania Mainland has an area of 945,200 square Kilometres and the Islands of Zanzibar cover an area of 2.332 square kilometres. Administratively, Tanzania Mainland has 21 regions while Zanzibar has 5 regions. There are two different law-making bodies namely, the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania which legislates for Mainland and Union matters and the House of Representatives that legislates for Zanzibar matters.

1.2.2 Population

5. According to the 2002 Population and Housing Census, Tanzania has a population of 34.5 million, of which 77 per cent live in rural areas while the remaining 23 per cent are in urban areas. Women constitute 51.1 per cent of the population (17.6 million), while men constitute 48.9 per cent (16.9 million). Similarly, children under 18 years constitute 50.6 per cent of the population, making Tanzania a country with a young population. The proportion of children aged between 0-14 years is 44.24 per cent of total population while that of old people aged 65 years and above is about 3.91 per cent. It is also estimated that, the proportion of the economically active population aged between 1564 years is 52 per cent.

6. Furthermore, in Mainland Tanzania 32.8 per cent of the total households were female headed while in Zanzibar it was 29.82 per cent. In both cases female headed households are more in urban areas than in rural areas.

1.2.3 Macro economy

7. The economy of Tanzania has been growing steadily from the rate of 4 per cent in 1998 to 6.7 per cent in 2004, while the rate of inflation has dropped from 30 per cent in 1998 to 4.2 per cent in 2004. There has been improved economic performance at the macro level in the past 8 years. The Agricultural sector predominates the economy accounting for 46.4 per cent of the GDP in 2004 from 49.1 in 1988, employing 84 per cent of the population and contributing 60 per cent of foreign exchange earnings. Other sectors, which have made significant contribution to GDP growth, include mining, manufacturing and tourism. The impact of this growth has been significant to the lives of Tanzanians. According to the Household Budget Survey of 2000/01 the proportion of the population below the national food poverty line of Tsh. 5,295 is 18.7 per cent and that below the national basic needs poverty line of Tsh 7,253 is 35.7 per cent. The prevalence of income poverty is very high in Tanzania. Poverty is predominantly a rural phenomenon where about 77 per cent of the poor live. It is highest among households which depend on agriculture. As the population is growing, the absolute number of the poor raises concern. There is also a big disparity between urban and rural poverty for both food and basic needs poverty. The on-going Time Use Survey that complements the Labour Force Survey is expected to reveal the level of women’s contribution to GDP.

8. Poverty Reduction Strategies have been put in place with a view to eradicate it. In 2000, a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper I was prepared and implemented. This strategy was followed by the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty commonly known as MKUKUTA, which was formulated in 2004. The strategy accords priority to all sectors and stresses on cross-sector collaboration with a view to complement efforts towards poverty reduction. Gender mainstreaming has been taken into account in the process of preparing the Strategy, the goal being to realize gender equality and women empowerment.

9. In the implementation of PRS I and NSGRP, a poverty monitoring system was prepared to assess the implementation of the strategies through which participatory assessment of poverty is undertaken. Indicators and targets to monitor poverty of women and men have been set and are utilized in the assessment process.

10. The Tanzania Assistance Strategy and Joint Assistance Strategy have been prepared for harmonizing Development Aid Modality and enhanced effectiveness of the support provided by the Development Partners. These strategies seek to promote good governance, transparency, accountability, capacity building and gender equality and equity.

Table 1. Real growth, gross domestic product

(Percentage)

Source: URT Economic Survey, 2004

1.2.4 Social cultural factors

11. The national language in Tanzania is Kiswahili and there are 120 ethnic groups, which speak indigenous languages as well. The ethnic groups have different cultures and traditions that have considerable impact on gender relations. In some societies these traditions and cultural practices have been a source of gender violence and discrimination. Furthermore, Tanzania is a secular state but respects different religious beliefs.

1.3. Sector Performance

1.3.1 Health

12. Since 1998, Tanzania has been implementing in phases a Health Sector Reform Programme which has a big component of Reproductive Health Maternal mortality rate was still high at the rate of 578 per 100,000 live births in 2004 and Infant mortality rate was 100 per 1,000 live births. At the same time, under five mortality rates was 63 per 1,000 live births.

13. The leading killer diseases and deficiencies for infants and under fives are malaria, pneumonia and anaemia. According to the 2004-2005 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, the crude birth rate was 42.5 per 1,000 live births and the crude death rate was 68 per 1,000 live births.

14. Life expectancy at birth declined from 52 years in 1990 to 48 years in 2000. The more recent decline in life expectancy is attributed to the impact of HIV and AIDS and other communicable diseases. The health condition of pregnant women infected with HIV and AIDS is worsened by poor nutrition and increased workload including domestic chores.

15. In order to address some of these problems, the government introduced the Community Health Fund and Drug Revolving Fund at District level and the National Health Insurance Fund in 2001 to increase access to health services. All these schemes aim at benefiting both women and men.

16. The Health Sector Reform Programme introduced cost sharing but maternal and child health services are provided free. The government also continued to provide free reproductive health and medical care services to all pregnant and nursing women. This enables pregnant women and adolescent girls to access free and improved sexual and reproductive health services. Women and girls are also provided with prerequisite knowledge for safe sex and how to protect themselves from HIV infection.

17. The private sector participation in health has also positively impacted on women’s health, through provision of increased health services. In 2003 there was an increase of 233 dispensaries and 16 health centres, constructed by local government authorities and community efforts. A total of 87 NGOs health facilities were registered in 2003. In addition the government increased the subsidies to hospitals owned by religious institutions from Tshs.7,500 to Tshs.15,000 per bed per year. Despite all these efforts, some crucial challenges still persist. For instance, traditions and practices that have adverse effects on the health of women and the girl child, such as Female Genital Mutilation, early marriages and pregnancies, have persisted.

18. Inadequate transport services for referral purposes of pregnant women and shortage of trained personnel in dispensaries, MCH clinics and health centres, also contribute to high Maternal and Neonatal Mortality. The HIV and AIDS pandemic continue to be a critical predicament on women’s health and development. The government has, however, intensified the campaign against the spread of HIV and AIDS and implements the programme for care and access to drugs for people living with HIV. Nonetheless, women continued to shoulder greater social demands, whereby HIV positive women continue to bear children and nurse HIV positive sick children, husbands and relatives until they themselves succumb to AIDS.

1.3.2 Education

19. The Education Sector Development Programme (2000 – 2005) aims at providing education for all by 2015. Other objectives of the programme are at increasing enrolment, improving quality of education, promoting gender friendly school environment and improving retention by taking into consideration gender concerns. Implementation has revealed that there has been an impressive performance in the implementation of the Primary School Education Programme, which is a component of Education Sector Development Programme. Achievements realized to date include: -

• Increase in Gross Enrolment Rate from 80 per cent in 1995 to 106.3 in 2004.

• Increase in Net Enrolment Rate from 88.5 in 1998 to 90.5 in 2004.

• Increase in the number of primary schools from 8,000 in 1998 to 13,689 in 2004.

• Increase in the number of pupils in primary schools from 5 million to 7,083,063 in 2004. Also, there is gender parity of boys and girls in primary schools.

20. Despite these achievements girls dropout rate was higher than that of boys due to early marriages, pregnancies, truancy, and involvement in domestic chores and taking care of the sick and children, which consume most of their time. The problem is even more severe when taking into account long distances to school and lack of hostels. The ongoing Education Sector Development Programme will continue to address these challenges. Refer to Part II and III for details.

21. Regarding Secondary Education, remarkable progress has equally been achieved. Records show that: -

• The number of Secondary Schools increased from 781 in 1998 to 1,291 in 2004.

• The enrolment at “O” level increased from 226,903 to 401,598, while that of “A” level increased from 18,165 to 31,001 in 1998 and 2004, respectively.

• The learning environment has improved for both girls and boys.

• The number of girls completing “O” and “A” levels has increased from 22,062 in 1998 to 31,116 in 2004. Gender parity at “O” level in 2004 was 52.9/47.1 for boys and girls. At “A” level in 2004 the parity was 65.3/34.7 for boys and girls compared to 1998, when the parity was 53.5/46.5 for boys and girls respectively.

22. Performance at Higher Education level has improved compared to the situation reported in previous report.

• Enrolment in State Universities has increased from 12,289 in 1998 to 26,475 in 2004.

• Gender parity for male students and female students was 71.8/27.2 per cent in 1998 compared to the ratio of 60.5/39.5 in 2004 in State Universities.

• Numbers of Private Universities in 2004 were 14 with an enrolment of 2,543 students with a sex ratio of 73.0/37.0 for males and females respectively. There were no Private Universities in 1998.

23. Technical education still remains to be male dominated. However due to awareness raising campaigns urging females to take up technical education, enrolment of female students has increased from 202 in 2003 to 232 in 2004 an increase of 14.9 per cent. This is an improvement from the 1998 situation when there were only 135 (7.4 per cent) female students in technical education.

24. Education records show that there was a substantial fall in adult literacy from 98 per cent in 1990’s to 84 per cent in 2003, and that the disparity between men and women has persisted. The illiteracy rate among women was 36 per cent compared to 20 per cent of men (HBS 2000 – 2001). Rural women and men have higher illiteracy rate than urban women and men (41 and 24 per cent respectively). The Education Sector Development Programme is also addressing this situation.

25. In Tanzania gender relations are reflected in household structures, division of labour, access and control over resources and power relations. Most communities in Tanzania are essentially patriarchal, whereby traditional norms, practices and attitudes are centred on male domination. Men continue to dominate power, ownership and control of productive resources. Women continue to have unequal access and control of major productive resources. The legal framework however, empowers women to own, use and mortgage land, equally as men.

26. Violence against women continues to occur in Tanzania. Physical and sexual violence, as well as economic, psychological and emotional abuse, occur in families and communities, in such forms as threats, intimidation and battery, sexual abuse of children, economic deprivation, femicide, female genital mutilation, and sexual harassment. Trafficking of young girls and children from rural areas to urban centres increased despite restriction in policy guidelines and the law. It is increasingly observed that courts are now giving deterrent sentences of up to life imprisonment to sexual offenders unlike the situation in the previous report. This new development is attributed to intensive sensitisation of law enforcers on dealing with cases of violence against women under the Sexual Offences (Special Provisions) Act, (SOSPA) of 1998, which is a major achievement in addressing gender issues in recent times. SOSPA is discussed in detail later under Part II of this report.

27. Men continued to dominate decision-making at communities and at institutional level. This phenomenon has however, declined in public institutions due to affirmative actions taken to involve women at all levels of decision-making. This is discussed in detail in Part II.

28. Tanzania which is a member of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women is committed to the implementation of the following Convention, Protocols and Declaration: -

• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms at Discrimination against Women 1998.

• The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action 1995.

• The Beijing +5 Political Declaration and Outcome Document 2000.

• Optional Protocol on CEDAW 2004.

• Optional Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa.

• AU Declaration on Gender Equality 2004.

• SADC Declaration on Gender Development and the Addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women and Children.

29. Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action continued since 1995 with significant achievements as shown in the Beijing +10 Country report submitted to the United Nations and in Part II of this report.

Part II

Responses to concluding comments

30. This second part of the report provides responses to concluding comments of the Committee on the combined 2^nd and 3^rd periodic reports.

2.1 Committee’s concern on inadequate definition of gender discrimination in the Constitution in accordance with Article 1 of the Convention

31. In the 13^th amendment (2000) of the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (1977) the government took into account the definition of discrimination as given in Article I of the Convention. Article 13 (4) stipulates that ‘‘no person shall be discriminated by any person or any authority acting under any law or in the discharge of the functions of business of any state office’’. Further, section (5) of the same Article, states that for purposes of this Article discrimination means to “satisfy the needs, of different persons on the basis of their nationality, tribe, gender, place of origin, political opinion, colour, religion or station in life such that certain categories of people are regarded as weak or inferior and are subjected to restrictions of conditions whereas persons of other categories are treated differently or are accorded opportunities or advantage outside the specified conditions or the prescribed necessary qualifications”. Similarly, Article 12 section 5 of the Constitution of Zanzibar as amended in 2002 states the same.

2.2 Committee’s suggestion that the government may need to re-examine its policies and programmes for the implementation of the Convention and advancement of women

32. From the mid 1990’s the Government enhanced efforts to re-examine development policies, strategies and programmes. Hence, in 2000 the Government put in place the National Development Vision 2025, which states, among other things, that Tanzania should ensure the attainment of gender equality and the empowerment of women in all socio-economic and political relations, and culture by the year 2025. In the same year the government adopted and started implementation of the Poverty Reduction Strategy. In order to effectively implement the strategy sectoral policies, strategies and programmes were also re-examined. The reviewed policies include the Women in Development Policy of 1992 with a view to incorporating gender concerns. Consequently, the Policy on Women and Gender Development Policy was adopted in 2000. The Government has also adopted an NGOs Policy (2000) which provides for effective collaboration between the Government and NGOs. In addition, the Government has put in place a Non-Governmental Organizations Act, No. 24 of 2002 with the purpose of effective involvement of NGOs.

33. The above mentioned initiatives, laid basis for formulation and reviewing of macro and sector policies and programmes with a gender perspective. Beginning the financial year 2005/06, the Government is implementing the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty. The gender responsive NSGRP builds on the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS -2000 - 2003)

34. The NSGRP identifies three major clusters of poverty reduction outcomes namely: Growth and reduction of income poverty; Improvement of quality of life and social well-being and Good governance. Some of the specific measures that will contribute to women advancement and the implementation of the Convention in general are the following among others:-

2.2.1 Cluster 1: Growth and reduction of income poverty

35. Some of the operational targets of the NSGRP reflect clearly the new thrust : -

• Reduced proportion of rural population (men and women) below the basic needs poverty line from 38.6 per cent in 2000/01 to 24 per cent in 2010.

• Reduced proportion of rural food poor (men and women) from 27 per cent in 2000/01 to 14 per cent by 2010.

• Reduced proportion of the urban population (men and women) below the basic needs poverty line from 25.8 per cent in 2000/01 to 12.9 per cent in 2010.

2.2.2 Cluster 2: Improvement of quality of life and social well-being

36. Some operational targets of the NSGRP in this cluster, which are focused on quality of life, and well-being of women and men are: -

• Increased gross and net enrolment of boys and girls including children with disabilities in primary schools from 90.5 per cent in 2004 to 99 per cent in 2010.

• Achieving an average daily attendance in primary schools of at least 85 per cent.

• At least 60 per cent of girls and boys pass standard V11 examinations by 2010.

• Increased proportion of orphans and other vulnerable children enrolled, attending and completing primary education from 2 per cent in 2000 to 3 per cent in 2010.

• At least 25 per cent of boys and girls are enrolled in advance level secondary schools by 2010. Increased percentage of girls and boys with disabilities and Orphans and Vulnerable Children who qualify for secondary education enrolment and complete secondary schools by 2010. At least 50 per cent of boys and girls aged 14-17 years are enrolled in ordinary level secondary schools by 2010.

• Reduced infant mortality from 95 in 2002 to 50 in 2010 per 1,000 live births.

• Reduced prevalence of stunting from 5.4 per cent to 2 per cent in 2010.

• Reduced maternal mortality from 529 to 265 in 2010 per 100,000 live births.

• Increased coverage of births attended by trained personnel from 50 per cent to 80 per cent in 2010.

• Reduced HIV prevalence among 15-24 year pregnant women from 11 per cent in 2004 to 5 per cent in 2010.

• Reduced HIV and AIDS prevalence among women and men with disabilities (aged 15-35 years) by 2010.

2.2.3. Cluster 3: Governance and Accountability

37. In the area of Governance, and Accountability, the NSGRP has set specific goals and targets as well. Some of these are:

• Structures and systems of governance as well as the rule of law are democratic, participatory, representative, accountable and inclusive.

• Improved personal and material security, reduced crime, elimination of sexual abuse and domestic violence.

38. These initiatives laid basis for formulation and reviewing macro and other policies and programmes with a gender perspective. The Government further undertook the following initiatives:

2.2.4 Strengthening Gender Machinery for Gender and Women’s Advancement

39. Two Ministries of Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar responsible for gender and women’s advancement were strengthened by way of capacity building training through provision of equipment, institutional restructuring and staff motivation.

40. The Ministry of Community Development, Women’s Affairs and Children, formed in 1990, was renamed the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children in 2002 to manifest its broad gender mandate. The Ministry was further strengthened by the establishment of two sections in the Department of Gender Development, namely Gender Mainstreaming and Women’s Development. Similarly, the Zanzibar gender machinery, the Ministry of Youth, Women and Children was strengthened through capacity building of the staff.

41. Ministries, Independent Departments and Agencies, Regional Secretariats and Local Authorities have also been strengthened by the establishment of Gender Focal Desks. As a result of these measures gender continue to be mainstreamed in policies, strategies and programmes of those institutions and structures. It has also become easier on the part of the ministries to monitor progress made in gender mainstreaming throughout the Government institutions and structures.

2.2.5 The Sub-Programme for Gender and Women’s Advancement 1997-2003

42. The Government also developed a Sub-programme for Women and Gender Advancement (1997 – 2003) which addresses four core areas and three supporting programmes based on the critical areas of concern of the Beijing Platform for Action. The core areas are enhancement of women’s legal capacity; economic empowerment of women and poverty eradication; Women’s access to political and decision making and education, training and employment. The supporting programmes were on institutional arrangement, capacity building, gender mainstreaming and advocacy. The four core areas based on the 12 critical areas of concern of the BPA, tally with CEDAW major areas of concern. The Sub-programme has been designed to take into account emerging challenges as well such as HIV and AIDS pandemic, child labour and the Millennium Development Goals.

2.2.6 Gender and Advocacy Programme.

43. The Government in collaboration with development partners have been implementing the Gender and Advocacy Programme. The Programme aims at strengthening institutional mechanisms and social cultural practices that promote and protect the rights of women and girls to bring about gender equality and equity. This Programme has also facilitated mainstreaming gender in policies, programmes and strategies including capacity building of the National Gender Machinery in gender analysis and planning. The Programme has strengthened also Civil Society Organizations, community and religious leaders, Parliamentarians and the media to advocate for the respect of human and women’s rights.

2.3 Committee’s recommendation on immediate action to modify customary and religious laws to comply with the Constitution and the Convention

44. In compliance with the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania as cited in para. 31 of this report various efforts are being undertaken to review the existing discriminatory laws, such as the Law relating to Inheritance, the Law of Marriage Act 1971 and other laws relating to the rights of the child. The process of reviewing these laws is spearheaded by the Law Reform Commission in collaboration with the Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Affairs, NGOs and CSOs. Some of the above mentioned laws have been reviewed and new laws put in place. For instance, the Land Act No 4 of 1999 and the Village Lands Act No. 5 of 1999 give women the right to acquire, own and use land equally with men.

45. In the year 2004 the Land Act No. 4 of 1999 was amended to create value for land and allow mortgage of land with the consent of spouses. This provides women the right to mortgage land for getting bank loans and credit. Land ownership also provides protection and safeguard of matrimonial property for women and children. Moreover, the Village Lands Act No. 5 of 1999 provides for the representation of men and women in the Land Allocation Committees and Land Administration Boards. Similarly, in Zanzibar, the Land Tenure Act of 1992 provides women and children with the right of protection and safeguard of matrimonial property. In addition, in 2002 the Government of Tanzania enacted the Courts (Land Disputes Settlements) Act, No. 2 of 2002 which states that composition of the Land Courts must include not less than 43 per cent women members. Awareness raising on land related matters are undertaken by the government and NGOs through the mass media campaigns to education the society on property rights. Changing traditional practices and attitudes is a gradual process. There have been deliberate efforts by the government and NGOs to address various issues and outstanding obstacles as follows:

• The Civil societies dealing with human rights issues have carried out awareness raising on the existing laws and collected views from the people at different levels from grass roots to national levels. Views collected were incorporated in the NGO Draft Perspective Bill that was submitted to the government to ensure that gender sensitive provisions are included in the proposed Inheritance Law.

• Taking into account recommendations of the civil society, the Government has received from the Law Reform Commission proposals for amendments on the present Inheritance Laws, the Marriage Act of 1971 and the Law on the Custodian of Children. The government intends to seek more opinion on these amendments before taking action. Procedures for wide consultations on the amendments are being worked to ensure exhaustive discussions on the areas proposed for amendments.

2.4 Committee’s recommendation on increasing the number of women in Parliament and local authorities

46. The Government of Tanzania through Constitutional amendments of 2000 and 2004 increased the proportion of women in Parliament and Local Authorities as follows: -

• Special seats for women in Parliament increased from 15 per cent in 1995 to a minimum of 20 per cent in 2000 and 30 per cent in 2004.

• In the Local Authorities special seats for women have increased from 25 per cent in 1995 to 33.3 per cent in 2000.

• The actual representation of women in Local Authorities was 35.5 per cent in 2004.

• The Constitution of Zanzibar as amended in 2002 increased the percentage of women’s special seats in the House of Representatives from 20 per cent in 2000 to a minimum of 30 per cent in 2002.

• The Government in collaboration with NGOs and development partners, conducted national civic and voters’ education. Potential women candidates were provided with skills to effectively contest for various positions in 2005 general election. As a result of the training more women came out and competed for leadership positions. Moreover, there is positive attitudinal change of women and men in electing women to leadership positions.

47. The Constitution of URT allows the President to nominate ten (10) Members of Parliament. The 14^th amendment of the Constitution (2004) provides for 50 per cent parity in the 10 presidential nominees. As shown in Charts 1 and 2, representation of women in both the National Assembly and in Local authorities is still low and therefore continues to be a challenge for the future. The situation is similar in Zanzibar, as shown in chart 3.

48. Further, the Government, in collaboration with Development Partners and NGOs, undertook capacity building programmes to empower women Parliamentarians in the area of Information and Communications Technology. The women Members of Parliament were also provided with tailor-made training on gender analysis and other related skills on their roles as members of Parliament. These training activities enabled them to acquire the needed skills. Election results of 2005 have demonstrated Government’s commitment and political will in ensuring effective women’s participation in high political decision making bodies. Central and critical posts managed by women include Deputy Speaker, Minister of Finance, Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation, Minister of Justice and Constitutional Affairs, Minister of Education and Vocational Education, Minister of Public Service and Minister of Community Development Gender and Children. Ten women Deputy Ministers have been appointed.

1- Women and Men in Parliament 1997 and 2004.

Source: MCDGC Beijing +10 Report 2005

2- Women and Men Councillors (Tanzania Mainland)-2004

Source: MCDGC, Beijing +10 Report, 2005

3 - Women and Men House of Representatives Zanzibar

1997 and 2003

Source: Government of Zanzibar: Situation Analysis of Women and Children in Zanzibar 2003.

2.5 Committee’s recommendation that violence against women in all its forms be criminalized and that shelters for women who have been subjected to violence be established

49. Tanzania has taken measures to combat violence against women. In 1998 the Parliament enacted the Sexual Offences Special Provisions Act which among other things addresses sexual exploitation of women and children, incest, procuration for prostitution, trafficking of persons, cruelty to children and child prostitution. It also addresses forms of sexual abuse like rape, molestation, indecent assault and sodomy, most of which are committed against women and children. A harmful traditional practice like Female Genital Mutilation is prohibited under this law. In order to ensure that victims of such crimes are brought to justice and to ensure that justice is done, the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania has enacted evidentiary and procedural laws that would install confidence in the victims of such crimes to come forward and testify in privacy.

50. Stiff sentences are given to culprits of rape, specifically punishment of rape (Section 131(1) of SOSPA, 1998) is imprisonment for life with or without corporal punishment or imprisonment of not less than 30 years with corporal punishment, and with fine and an additional payment of compensation determined by the court to the person in respect of whom the offence was committed for and the injuries caused. The Committee also requested detailed information on FGM practiced in Tanzania. Female Genital Mutilation is removal of part or all of external female genital organs, for cultural beliefs or other reasons. In Tanzania the following forms of FGM exist:

• Clitoridectomy - removal of part or whole of the clitoris.

• Excision – removal of clitoris and part or total excision of the labia minora. This is the most common covering about 80 per cent of those circumcised.

• Modified infibulations – removal of clitoris and stitching of the anterior two thirds of labia minora.

• Total infibulations – removal of clitoris and labia minora, plus incision and stitching raw surface of the labia minora.

• Introcision – enlargement of vagina on face by tearing it downwards manually or with a sharp instrument.

51. Specific ethnic groups practice FGM in Tanzania and are found in 8 regions out of the total 26 regions. It is estimated that about 18 per cent of Tanzanian women undergo FGM. The practice is criminalized by the law and condemned by the Government, NGOs, CBOs, and religious institutions, local and international communities as violation of human reproductive and women’s health rights. In addition the fact that this practice is illegal, other measures to combat FGM are explained in detail in Part III.

52. Regarding the establishment of shelters for women who have been subjected to violence, the Government feels that implementation of this recommendation may exacerbate family related problems if not handled carefully taking into account existing reconciliation procedures at family level. However, the Government might support interventions for providing shelter when called upon.

2.6 Committee’s recommendation that laws of inheritance and succession be formulated to guarantee rural women their rights of inheritance and ownership of land and property

53. The Law Review Commission has recommended to the Government amendments on the laws that discriminate against women including proposals on customary and other practices that prevent women from inheriting land and property. The Government is currently reviewing the recommendations and intends to prepare a white paper to seek for opinion of the public before the review is carried out.

54. Furthermore, the Government has put in place the Land Act No. 4 of 1999 and Village Land Act No. 5 of 1999, which will have the effect of reversing customary laws and practices that discriminate against women.

55. Some communities still perpetuate practices that are harmful to women’s health, such as the use of traditional herbs and taboos that prohibit women from eating certain types of food. Training is conducted through the media and workshops by health workers to reduce such practices. Pregnant women are counselled during clinic visits on the importance of nutritional meals and the effect of using unauthorized herbs to the unborn child and mother.

56. With regard to the health of girls and women, the health sector has put priority on programmes that address reproductive health. There has been a lot of work done in terms of rehabilitation and construction of rural health centres that are within reach. However, these efforts are sometimes marred by harmful practices that prohibit women from accessing the services. Such practices include belief in witchcraft and use of traditional medicines that put restrictions to eating certain types of food, FGM and early pregnancies as a result of early marriages. The only way to come out of this situation is through intensive sensitization and awareness raising programmes on the good health practices without disturbing the social norms and good traditions.

57. Accordingly, the government in collaboration with NGOs and other development partners have developed and implemented several programmes to sensitize women against those harmful traditional practices and on their rights generally. The Government collaborating with NGOs and CBOs has been conducting sensitization and awareness creation programmes to women and the community on adequate and equitable nutrition were undertaken through mass media.

2.7 Committee’s recommendation that the government make vigorous efforts to address the problem of high infant and maternal mortality rate and seek assistance of World Health Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund and other United Nations agencies

58. As explained in paragraph 16 the Government of Tanzania has always put great emphasis on the country’s human resources. Under these efforts MCH services are provided free for children under 5 years and expectant mothers. To complement these efforts the government has also been implementing the programmes in Cooperation with UNICEF on Child Survival, Protection and Development, UNFPA on the Reproductive Health Programme and has also been collaborating with WHO on Health and Nutrition Programmes. In all these programmes family planning, nutrition and safe motherhood have been accorded special emphasis.

59. Furthermore, to reduce the infant and maternal mortality rate, the Government in collaboration with NGOs, bilateral donors and international agencies implement intervention programmes for health, sanitation and water, malaria control, iodine deficiency, immunization, Vitamin ‘A’ supplementation, training of traditional birth attendants, combating FGM and sexual and reproductive health. However, HIV/AIDS has retarded progress made in reducing the infant and maternal mortality rates.

2.8 Committee’s request that detailed information on the mandate, budget and projects of Women’s Development Fund be included in the report

60. The Women’s Development Fund which is a Revolving Fund was established in 1993 by the Exchequer and Audit Ordinance of 1961 cap (439). The Budget is provided by the Government and Local Authorities. The Government provides Tshs. 500m per year and the Local Authorities contribute 5 per cent of their total revenue. By June, 2005 the Government had contributed a total of Tshs 3.2 billion since the establishment of the Fund.

61. The interest rate for WDF was lowered from 24 per cent in year 1994 to 10 per cent in 2000. This was purposely done to assist women loan beneficiaries to repay in time and to encourage more women to utilize the funds. Loan committees at the Council level were established to monitor loans provision and repayment. In each of these loan committees, there are two women representatives of beneficiaries of the Fund. However, the interest accrued from the Fund is retained for conducting training and monitoring.

62. The purpose of the Fund is to provide soft loans to women for economic activities including entrepreneurship and other productive activities. The Projects run by women beneficiaries include: agriculture and livestock, poultry projects, trading and commerce, cottage industries and food processing, service delivery projects like day care centres and beauty saloons. Since the commencement of the Fund in 1995 to date, Tanzania has 1,848 women groups which have benefited from the Fund. Through this empowerment more women are now taking loans from various Commercial Banks and other financial institutions including Non Governmental Organizations, SACCOS and SACAS.

2.9 Committee’s request for further information on the situation of refugee women and programmes in place that address their needs

63. The government of the United Republic of Tanzania has continued to receive and host refugees from neighbouring countries, like Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda and Somalia that experience political instability and ethnic strife. The Parliament has enacted the Refugees Act 1998 that provides a legal framework for assisting and protecting refugees. The Act provides for availability of essential services and amenities to the refugee community. Among others, the law protects refugee women from violent acts. In terms of education the law requires that every refugee be provided with education in accordance with the Tanzania National Education Act 1978. Programmes catering for refugee needs such as water, health and education are implemented in designated areas or centres and refugees camps. The refugee community, particularly women, have been actively engaged in productive activities that have enabled them to resettle in refugee camps and improve their socio-economic situation, and that of their children.

64. In order to ensure peace and tranquillity, the Government has taken measures to curb possession of arms by refugees. The government, in collaboration with the United Nations Agencies, Development Partners and NGOs continue to provide protection, assistance and training on peacekeeping and conflict resolution.

65. Tanzania is at the forefront of long-term peace building initiatives, which were fortified by Resolutions 1325 on peace and security. The government hosted an International Conference to address the situation of conflicts in the Great Lakes Countries in November, 2004. The Conference considered and deliberated on peace issues and on how to establish an effective regional security framework for the prevention, management and peace settlement of conflicts. The Framework will also be a tool to evaluate regularly relevant sub-regional initiatives and mechanisms by adopting appropriate traditional structure prevention, destabilization and conflicts in the region. Women from the Great Lakes Region actively participated in influencing the outcome of the conference, contained in the Dar-es-Salaam Declaration on Peace and Security.

66. Tanzania is at the forefront in taking measures to prevent and combat sexual and gender violence against refugee women and children. Refugee women and children face similar or related sexual violence as Tanzanian women. Hence, laws that are applicable to Tanzania citizens are also applied to refugee women. In addition, Tanzania is carrying out awareness raising on human, children and women rights inside and surrounding refugee camps in order to reduce gender and sexual violence.

Part III

Measures taken to implement the Convention

67. This part will give detailed information and measures taken on the areas of Legal and Human Rights, Economic Empowerment, Education, Training and Employment, Health and HIV/AIDS which were identified as priority areas of implementation during this reporting period. The impact of policies and programmes undertaken will also be reported.

3.1 Legal and Human Rights

68. The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania has taken various measures to ensure attainment of gender equality and women’s advancement. In February, 2004 the Government ratified the Optional Protocol to the CEDAW. Moreover, CEDAW was translated into the National language, Kiswahili, for accessibility to the majority of women and men.

69. CEDAW monitoring indicators were developed in 2002 in order to enhance follow up on implementation in order to accelerate legal and human rights of men and women. CEDAW monitoring indicators guide sectors and regions to collect and use gender disaggregated data. The indicators were disseminated to all Gender Focal Points in Ministries and Regions and some of these indicators have also been included in the Computerised Gender Sensitive Monitoring System Database of the Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children.

3.1.1. Violence against women

70. The Government has put in place several measures to combat violence against women. In this regard, a National Plan of Action to combat violence against women and children was developed in 2001 and disseminated to stakeholders. The Plan of Action provides strategies and activities to be implemented by various stakeholders. It focuses on Legal, Social Economic, Cultural and Political, Services and education, training and awareness building. Based on the NPA in combating violence against women, a National Plan of Action in combating FGM and various programmes were developed and being implemented as explained in para. 71-78.

71. A National Plan of Action to combat FGM (2001 to 2015) was developed to provide guidance on elimination of Female Genital Mutilation. In implementing the NPA on FGM various activities were undertaken which include: training of school teachers in order to integrate the knowledge in schools’ curricular; sensitization of communities through campaigns, media programmes, seminars, workshops, drama, books, and leaflets on harmful effects of FGM. Awareness raising on the existing laws against FGM is also provided. In addition a number of NGOs undertake training and sensitization activities on the legal and human rights aspects of FGM and participated fully in developing the NPA on FGM.

72. As a result of ‘Stop Female Genital Mutilation’ drive, some mutilators have been sensitized to the extent of laying down their tools used to perform FGM and they have joined the campaign of educating the community to stop the harmful practice. Further, some parents and elders, who were hitherto advocates of FGM, come out to denounce the practice in public. First February each year is a national FGM Day, which is used to sensitize the community on the harmful effects of FGM.

73. The government provides a conducive environment for combating FGM by facilitating the establishment of networks. For example, in 2001 the government facilitated the formation of the Tanzania Chapter, which is an integral part of the Eastern Africa Network, on the elimination of FGM. This Chapter has a secretariat composed of different stakeholders including NGOs and is coordinated by the Ministry of Community Development Gender and Children.

74. The Government is signatory to the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development (1997) and its Addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women and Children, (1998). The Declaration is a commitment by SADC Member States placing gender firmly on the agenda of the SADC programme of action and community building initiatives. Based on the Declaration and Addendum, the Government initiated the preparation of the National Plan of Action to combat violence against women in 2001 which has been discussed earlier. Both the SADC Declaration and the Addendum have been translated into Kiswahili to make them user friendly to majority of Tanzanians at the grass roots level.

75. In 2001, Tanzania established the Commission for Human Rights and Good Governance. The Commission investigates allegations involving violation of human rights. The Commission also promotes harmonization of national legislations and monitors adherence of the Constitution to human rights standards enshrined in human rights treaties. In its endeavour, the Commission has realised the importance of gender and a special desk dealing with public education and women’s rights was established in 2004.

76. A number of studies have been conducted by the Government and NGOs on violence against old women. Based on the findings, campaigns to combat the killings of old women suspected of being witches have been undertaken. Moreover, the International Women’s Day has been used to sensitize the community to stop violence against women and to respect human dignity in general. As a result of these initiatives, more women willingly come out to report on cases of violence against themselves or their children. Table 2 shows an increased number of women who reported to have been violated on and harassed in the period between 2000 and 2003.

Table 2: Number of women who reported to have been violated on and harassed – 2000 – 2003.

Source: Tanzania Police Force- Annual Report 2003.

77. The Government, in collaboration with NGOs has been running programmes of awareness raising to school committees, ward tribunals and school children on women’s and children’s rights.

78. The curricula in training institutions for police and magistrates were reviewed to incorporate topics on how to deal with cases of violence against women and children. Moreover, Women Judges and Magistrates formed The Tanzania Women Judges Association in 2000, which among other things, aims at ascertaining their role in society and identifying laws that constrain women. This has enabled them to recommend for possible amendments and make judgments with a gender perspective. Training of the public in paralegal was conducted by the Government and NGOs in order to reduce violence, promote community support in reducing exploitation of women and children and in handling cases at grassroots level. There has also been a notable increase in the number of women in the legal profession, thus improving women’s access to legal services.

79. The Government of Tanzania in collaboration with various stakeholders undertook several measures to enhance women’s legal literacy and rights through media and sensitization programmes. Legal information in Kiswahili in the form of booklets, pamphlets, posters, brochures and leaflets was disseminated. This resulted in positive attitude of law enforcers towards women’s legal rights and increased confidence of Tanzanian women to pursue for their rights.

3.2 Economic Empowerment

80. The Government adopted the National Micro-Finance Policy (2000) that provides guidelines to achieve gender equality and equity in accessing financial services. The Policy directs that special efforts be made to incorporate mechanisms that would make financial services accessible to both women and men. It also gives flexibility in regulating micro-finance institutions, including those established specifically for financing women and those that serve both women and men. The Micro-Finance Policy has led to the revision or formulation of other policies which identify interventions that would promote indigenous entrepreneurs, women, youth and people with disabilities to take part in economic activities.

81. In this regard, the Government in collaboration with other stakeholders has remarkably promoted the formation of women productive groups such as the formal Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies, Savings and Credit Associations which are informal and Community Based Organizations. Over 60 per cent of the established Women’s groups are rural based. Rural women increasingly become members of informal and formal Savings and Credit Associations which provide limited credit services. Women are encouraged to strengthen the associations so that they graduate into registered Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies. Encouraging women to form SACCOS has shown positive results, whereas in 2002 there were 26, 667 (17 per cent) women members in SACCOs, they rose to 32,728 (20 per cent) in 2003; 84,671 (34 per cent) in 2004 and 85,949 (34 per cent) in 2005.

Chart 4: Percentage of Women and Men members in SACCOS 2002-2004.

Source: Ministry of Cooperatives and Marketing 2004.

82. The Government in collaboration with NGOs has trained women in entrepreneurship and leadership skills. A total of 1,283 women entrepreneurs were assisted to participate in the Dar-es-Salaam International Trade Fair from 1996 - 2004. The assisted women acquired standards certification of their products and participated in international and local trade fairs and exhibitions, through which they have been able to market their products, gain and learn from each other on marketing and product development. Exchange of experiences during trade fairs has contributed to confidence building amongst women, an important factor in tackling the challenges of competition in trade and globalization. Best practices have been registered in terms of sales growth, income generation and ability to take care of family needs. The establishment of links and networks has facilitated wider market outlets.

83. The Government, in collaboration with NGOs has carried out a Gender Budget Initiative. The initiative involved development of gender budgeting tools and capacity building for budget officers in selected ministries. As a result gender budgeting has been institutionalized in the Ministry of Finance and the President’s Office - Planning and Privatization. Guidelines and checklists on gender mainstreaming have been provided to all ministries, regional and local authorities which promote gender responsive budgets. Ministries and other institutions are also empowered to be able to collect, analyse and present gender disaggregated data for policy decisions and other uses.

84. The government is also implementing rural development programmes. In order to achieve maximum efficiency, the Government established the Tanzania Social Action Fund in 2000 to ensure that targeted development initiatives in various areas of the country get support in a timely cost effective manner. Communities participate in developing and implementing projects and activities. In all TASAF activities the ratio of women and men in Community Management committees is 50/50 and women participate fully in the identification and implementation of projects. The projects implemented are on education, health, water and infrastructure which to a large extent have contributed to reducing the heavy workload of women and giving them time to participate effectively in community development activities.

3.3 Education, Training and Employment

3.3.1 Education

85. The Tanzania Education and Training Policy of 1995 recognizes that a good system of education is that which is effective both from the quantitative and qualitative perspectives. To achieve that the policy aims at promoting, among others, access to and equity in education of all citizens regardless of sex; encouraging equitable distribution of educational institutions and resources and expanding and improving girls’ education. The policy directs curriculum review in eliminating gender stereotyping in textbooks and classroom practices; strengthening and encouraging the participation and academic achievement of girls. Emanating from the Policy, various programmes have been developed as follows:

86. From 2000 - 2005 the government has been implementing a sector wide approach in education, through the Education Sector Development Programme in an effort to promote equality and equity in provision of education nationwide. ESDP has three components, basic education which comprises primary and secondary education; vocational and folk education and higher education and training.

87. In 2003, the Ministry of Education and Culture developed and issued a pre-primary school syllabus to be used in all the schools. Pre- primary school teachers are trained in 6 Teacher Training Colleges in the country. All primary schools have been directed to build pre-primary classrooms, enrol pupils of both sexes and keep sex disaggregated data to be fed to the Education Management Information System at MOEC. Enrolment figures in public and private pre-primary schools was 547,543 in 2004 with a sex ratio of 51/49 boys and girls, respectively.

88. Since 2001, the Primary Education Development Plan has been implemented by the Government and Development partners. The Primary Education Development Plan under ESDP has remarkably increased the enrolment of school age boys and girls. The enforcement of by-laws and regulations pertaining to enrolment and retention has facilitated keeping girls and boys in schools. Furthermore, access and retention has increased due to abolition of direct costs of education such as school fees. In 2002 the total number of pupils in primary schools was 5,981, 338 of whom 2,929,320 and 3,052,018 were girls and boys, respectively. They increased in 2004 to 7,083,063 of whom 3,456,822. and 3,626,241 were girls and boys respectively. The government has also provided capitation grants, improved physical school infrastructure, and built more classrooms. The total number of schools increased from 12,286 with 150,675 streams in 2002 to 13,689 with 190,059 streams in 2004.

89. On the whole, ESDP has reduced gender disparity in enrolment in primary education. Whereas enrolment was 48 per cent for girls and 52 per cent for boys in 2003, it was 49.1 per cent for girls and 50.9 for boys in 2004. In June 2003, the total enrolment in public schools was 1,475,889 of whom 715,658 were girls (48.49 per cent). The Net Enrolment Ratio increased from 57 and 56 in 1998 to 89.4 and 90 for girls and boys, respectively in 2004. The Gross Enrolment Ratio increased from 75.8 and 77 in 1998 to 102.1 and 108.6 for girls and boys, respectively in 2004 (Chart 5 and 6). In Zanzibar, girls’ enrolment in primary schools was 68.9 per cent in 2000.

Chart 5: Primary Education Net Enrolment Ratio for Girls and Boys 1998-2004.

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, Basic Education Statistics (2004).

Chart 6: Primary Education Gross Enrolment Ratio for Girls and Boys

1998-2004

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, Basic Education Statistics (2004).

90. Complementary Basic Education was introduced in Tanzania in 1999 as a pilot project, in an effort to eradicate illiteracy. The programme was incorporated into the Primary Education Development Programme and is implemented countrywide. School children who did not enrol in schools and those who dropped out of schools are given an opportunity to undertake primary education in 3 years instead of 7 years. Those who perform well join formal secondary education. In Zanzibar, a similar programme is called “Alternative Learning for School Dropouts.

91. Although primary education is compulsory as stipulated in the Education Act of 1978, some girls and boys still drop out before completing primary education due to various reasons, which include among others, truancy, pregnancies, early marriages, assisting with domestic chores and petty business. In 1998 girls who dropped out of school because of pregnancy were 3,080 and in year 2004 girls who dropped out for the same reason were 2,550. Moreover, the total number of girls who dropped out of school for various reasons decreased from 6,472 in 1999 to 5,830 in 2004. The decrease in number of girls who dropped out of school is largely due to the retention strategies adopted for PEDP.

92. Beginning year 2005 the Government has embarked on implementing Secondary Education Development Plan. In order to promote gender equality in access to education, the Government initiated Community Based Education for Girls within the context of ESDP to encourage public and private investors to build girls’ hostels and boarding schools. As a result of this effort among others, enrolment increased from 99,402 and 109,336 in 1998 to 189,198 and 212,400 for girls and boys respectively in 2004. Enrolment of girls in ‘A’ level secondary education was 6,072 in 1998 and increased to 10,765 in 2004. (Chart 7 and 8).

Chart 7: Enrolment in ‘O’ Level Secondary Education for Girls and

Boys (Form 1-4).

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, Basic Education Statistics 2004

Chart 8: Enrolment in ‘A’ Level Secondary Education for Girls and

Boys (Form 5-6)

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, Basic Education Statistics 2004

93. In the provision of equitable distribution of educational institutions and resources, the government and private sector increased the number of secondary schools from 781 in 1998 to 1,291 in 2004. There were 828 government secondary schools and 463 private secondary schools in 2004.

94. In order to promote access to education for the poor, Education Trust Funds were established in various districts to assist girls and boys who perform well in examinations, but cannot afford to pay the expenses for secondary education. A special fund for girls known as Girls’ Secondary Education Support Programme was established in the Ministry of Education and Culture. This programme benefited 2,980 girls between 1998 and 2002. The GSES has now been mainstreamed in the Ministry’s budget for sustainability.

95. The Gender Dimension Programme was established to enhance girls’ access to University education. A pre-entry programme for female science students was incepted in 1997 with the aim of uplifting qualifications of female applicants into various science based disciplines by providing remedial classes in order to improve their performance and retention in science and mathematics subjects. Remedial training is provided before commencement of the academic year. From 1997 to 2005 a total of 563 female students joined the university education under this programme. In 2001 a Female Undergraduate Scholarship Programme was launched with the aim of increasing female enrolment at the university level. The programme is funded by the government and development partners. A total of 291 female students were enrolled between 2001 and 2005. As a result of the programme, among others, female students enrolment in institutions of higher learning increased from 5,213 (23.7 per cent) in 2000/2001 to 15,782 (32.7 per cent) in 2004/2005. In Zanzibar, the proportion of female students in the public University was 34 per cent, while in private Universities the proportion reached 49 per cent in 2003. Chart 9 shows increased student enrolment in higher learning institutions for females and males between 2000/01 and 2004/05.

Chart 9. Students’ enrolment in higher learning institutions

2000/01 - 2004/2005.

Source: The URT (2004) Basic Statistics on Science, Technology and Higher Education

2000/01 – 2004/2005

96. Beginning year 2005, the Government established a Higher Education Loans Fund with the objective of providing necessary resources for higher education for students who would otherwise lack the means to pursue higher education studies.

3.3.2 Training

97. The Vocational Education Training Policy allows for designing of programmes required in the labour market. For example the Folk Development colleges train members of the community in trades that will empower them with income generation skills. Some women specific programmes provide them with improved skills, which enhance their performance, as well as improve status and added value to the jobs they undertake in the Small and Medium Enterprises and in the informal sector. Few women joined vocational training, which offered skills, such as plumbing, mechanics and masonry. Recognizing the importance of improving the involvement of girls, Vocational Education Training Authority, developed a strategy for empowering girls and women in different trades. As a result, in 2004/2004 enrolment in long and short courses in these institutions was 145,959, of whom 52,550 (36 per cent) were women.

98. Moreover, very few girls join technical training institutions because of various reasons including few technical secondary schools that enrol girls; girls poor performance in mathematics and science subjects which are a prerequisite for joining technical and technological institutions. However, due to sensitization programmes which aim at encouraging girls to join technical education, the number of girls in technical training institutions is steadily increasing. For example in 2000/2001 there were 168 (7.7 per cent of the total) girls in technical training institutions, their number increased to 347 (15.5 per cent of the total) in 2004/05. Chart 10 shows the slight increase of female students’ enrolment in TTIs.

Chart 10: Student Enrolment in Technical Training Institutions

2000/01- 2004/05

Source: The URT (2004) Basic Statistics on Science, Technology and Higher Education

2000/01 – 2004/2005

3.3.3 Training Fund for Tanzania Women

99. The Government with financial support from the Canadian Government implemented Phase II of the Training Fund for Tanzania Women 1998 – 2003. Its goal was to improve women’s technical and managerial skills and increase the number of trained and qualified women. TFTW trained 462 women at different levels, in long and short term training programmes. A total of 272 women received tailor-made group trainings. The courses covered managerial and administrative skills, career guidance and counselling, planning, law, science, among others. One hundred and eighty eight women attended courses in gender sensitization and entrepreneurship skills. The training under TFTW has impacted on women’s performance in high level jobs and businesses. For example three trainees after returning from their studies were promoted to Assistant Directors position and two acquired higher political posts as Deputy Secretary General of Youth and a District Commissioner.

3.3.4 Teacher Education.

100. In 2000 there were 40 Teacher Training Colleges in the country supplying schools with teachers at Diploma and Grade ‘A’ Certificate levels, these increased to 45 in 2004. In 1998 there were 2,057 female teacher trainees in public training institutions. Due to ESDP the number of female teacher trainees increased to 14, 647 in 2004 and the proportion of female primary school teachers increased from 15 per cent in 2000 to 42 per cent in 2003. Chart 11 shows the increase of enrolment of teacher trainees (women and men) in public Teacher Training Colleges, to meet the increased demand as pupils increase in primary and secondary education levels.

Chart 11- Enrolment in Public Teacher Training Colleges 1998-2004.

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, Basic Education Statistics 2004

3.3.5 Special Education

101. In the context of PEDP, the number of disabled pupils in primary schools increased from 3,452 in 1998 (2,114 and 1,338 boys and girls, respectively) to 16,257 (9,142 and 7,195 boys and girls, respectively). The number of disabled children is not well known due to customs and traditions which regard disabled children as a curse and therefore are hidden from the public. The community is sensitized against such attitudes and increasingly they enrol their disabled children in schools. Chart 12 shows the increased enrolment of pupils in special education between 1998 and 2004.

Chart 12: Enrolment of Pupils in Special Education 1998-2004

Source: Ministry of Education and Culture, Basic Education Statistics 2004

3.3.6 Family Life Education.

102. In 1998 Family Life Education was introduced in curricula of Primary and Secondary schools and Teacher Training Colleges. FLE constitutes of four major related components namely: population dynamics and its consequences, reproductive and sexual health including family planning, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS of various aspects gender equity and women’s empowerment. FLE has empowered the youth with knowledge and skills that enable them to make informed choices and decisions on matters that affect their lives and well-being.

3.3.7 Recreational Activities.

103. Cultural practices limit girls’ and women’s full participation in recreational activities and sports. Sensitization programmes to the community and the girl-child have been instituted in order to build self-confidence and self-esteem so as to get rid of such cultural barriers. The government formulated the Sports Development Policy (2000), which encourages men, women, boys and girls to participate in sports and recreational activities.

104. Strategies have been developed to promote sports. There are physical education activities in all primary and secondary schools in which boys and girls participate. There are annual sports competitions for different groups and organisations in order to encourage people’s participation in sports. For example, there are annual competitions for primary and secondary schools, higher learning institutions, public institutions and ministries, among others. Women and girls participate in these competitions.

3.3.8 Curriculum.

105. Most school textbooks and other instructional materials which carried gender-stereotyped text, content and illustrations, have been revised or are earmarked for revision to ensure they are gender sensitive. The Ministry of Education and Culture gave a directive that all new materials should be gender sensitive in order to be approved for use in schools. Moreover, teachers are sensitized to modify gender-biased materials when teaching.

106. Teaching methods have been improved and teachers are introduced to gender sensitive classroom interactions in Teacher Training Colleges and orientation programmes. Gender courses are introduced in institutions of higher learning and in Folk Development Colleges.

3.3.9 Employment

107. The Government domesticated the International Labour Standards through the enactment of the National Employment Services Act (1999). This law provides for equal opportunities to women and men in access to employment services. The Employment and Labour Relations Act (2004) was also passed by the Parliament. It prohibits discrimination in the work place on the basis of gender, sex, marital status, disability, and pregnancy. This law also requires employers to report to the Labour Commissioner on their plans to promote equal opportunities. Affirmative actions are taken to safeguard and protect women employees. Strategies and programmes to enhance women to be employed to ensure gender equality and equity have also been developed.

108. Information resource centres to access markets and exchange of information were established in government and other public institutions, which provided training on entrepreneurship and business skills. The government established a Women’s Information Window within the Ministry of Community Development Gender and Children to provide information and counselling to women on jobs training, scholarship opportunities and on how to present oneself before interviews. In 2004, one hundred and twenty one women benefited from the programme.

3.3.9.1 Women in Agriculture

109. Most Tanzanians depend on agriculture which is mainly subsistence. However, households are diversifying their economic activities. As a result there has been a reduction in agriculture being a major activity from 73 per cent in 1991/92 to 63 per cent in 2000/01. Women have experienced the largest reductions in agricultural activity from being the main activity from 77 per cent in 1991/92 to 63 per cent in 2000/01. They have shifted to other activities in the informal sector; such activities include small business, food processing and handicraft. This has enabled women to become economically strong and some of them are paying school expenses for their children and meeting costs of various services. Chart 13 shows the situation of women in Agriculture in years 1991/92 and 2000/01.

Chart 13: Women in Agriculture 1991/92 and 2000/01

Source: Household Budget Survey 2002.

110. A Government run programme on skills training for self-employment has been established. In the financial year 2004/2005, a total of 1.259 people benefited from the programme, of whom 590 (46.8 per cent) were men and 669(53.2 per cent) were women. This shows that women are taking an active role in training for skills development in order to enhance their efficiency.

3.3.9.2 Women in Public Sector

111. Men and women in the public sector are entitled to equal remuneration commensurate with their work. Unmarried women receive equal benefits as married women depending on their employment status and educational qualifications. In year 2003 women in the public service at all levels comprised 38 per cent of whom 67 per cent were employed in Local Authorities, 23 per cent in Ministries and 10 per cent in the Regions.

112. The recruitment to various posts in the Public Service is open to women and men applicants based on non-discriminative job advertisement, description and specification. However, low education level, qualification and patriarchal attitudes limit women’s opportunity of being recruited and promoted. This led the Government to take various steps in bridging the gender gap in employment. The Government encouraged women to apply for advertised jobs. Moreover, there is also an affirmative action on equal opportunity to employment, whereby when a woman and a man applicant have similar qualifications, the woman is given priority in recruitment. As a result there has been an increase of women in the public service.

113. In the public service there has been an increase of women in decision-making positions. The percentage of women Permanent Secretaries increased from 10 in 1998 to 28 in 2004 Chart 14 shows the percentage increase of Women Permanent Secretaries in 1998 and 2004. In Zanzibar the percentage of women Permanent Secretaries was 8.2 per cent in 2004. The percentage of women Regional Commissioners increased from 5 in 1998 to 10 in 2004.

Chart 14: The Percentage of Women Permanent Secretaries 1998 and 2004.

Source: MCDGC Compiled Report 2004.

114. The current representation of women in ministerial management teams in 2006 is 18 per cent. This is an improvement from 14 per cent in 1998. This is illustrated in Table 3.

Table 3: Gender disaggregated data of Members of Management Teams in Ministries

Source: Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children: 2005 Survey

115. Several institutions have also managed to have women as Chief Executives such as: the Accountant and Auditor General the Treasury Registrar, the Registrar of Births and Deaths, the Director General Civil Aviation, the Secretary Public Service Commission, the Chair of the Board of Tanzania Revenue Authority, the Director General Drug and Control Commission, Director General Education Authority, The Director General Public Service Pensions Fund, the Director General of National Insurance Company and several more in the private sector.

116. In Zanzibar, Women District Commissioners increased from 18 per cent in 1996 to 21 per cent in 2004 and Women District Executive Directors were 14 per cent in year 2004. Chart 15 shows the increase in percentage of women directors in the Public Sector between 1998 and 2004 in Tanzania mainland.

Chart 15: The Percentage of Women Directors in the Public Sector-1998 and 2004

Source: MCDGC Compiled Report, 2004.

117. The existing Public Service Standing Orders of Tanzania Government (1984) and the Employment and Labour Relations Act of 2003 have provision for 84 days paid maternity leave which includes the regular 28 days annual leave. A paternity leave of 7 days is also provided. However, mothers who become ill during lactation or during pregnancy are provided 14 days sick leave. The paid maternity leave is available every three years, irrespective of marital status. Furthermore, a two-hour break is provided for breast-feeding for 7 months to employed mothers. However, the situation in the private sector is different since employers are not bound by these Standing Orders.

3.3.9.3 Women in the Judiciary.

118. There is an increase of women in decision-making positions in the judiciary. In 2004, the percentage of Women Judges reached 16 per cent. In 2004 for the first time, a woman Judge was appointed to the Court of Appeal. The percentage of women magistrates in Primary Courts was 21 per cent in year 2003. In 2004 the Attorney General’s Chamber had a woman Administrator General, a woman Registrar of Commercial Court and 40 per cent of the Directors were women. Women Resident Magistrates increased from 24.2 per cent in 1998 to 29 per cent in 2004.

3.4 Health Care and Reproductive Rights

119. The Government continued to strengthen and improve curative services and reviewed the Health Policy (1990) in 2003, to put emphasis on preventive health care. District based health services are emphasized for easy accessibility and affordability to all people, women and men, children and the youth. The Policy has promoted the involvement of NGOs, private sector and religious institutions in health service delivery and in the development of human resources related to health services and care.

3.4.1 Maternal and Child Health.

120. A Reproductive and Child Health Strategy 2004 – 2008 resulting from Health Reforms was developed to intensify interventions in maternal and childcare. Institutional arrangements for managing the health service delivery through District Health Boards and Ward Health Committees were introduced. In addition, the Boards enable women’s participation in decision-making by requiring a proportion of 50/50 membership of both women and men. By-laws to establish Community Health Funds were formulated to improve Primary Health Care. The Community Health Funds involved communities to participate in planning, implementation and monitoring the performance of health service delivery.

121. The Policy and strategy led to improved health services and availability of essential drugs. For example, there has been significant gains in immunization since the late 1990s. Achievements include an expansion of the vaccination coverage; 91.4 per cent for BCG, 79.9 per cent for measles, and 83 per cent for DPT in 2004.

122. Pregnant and lactating mothers have been encouraged through nutritional and health programmes and campaigns to consume high energy dense foods, fruits and vegetable, which are rich in vitamin A and iron. This is expected to combat deficiencies and improve resistance to diseases, like malaria, measles, diarrhoea and reducing the adverse effects of anaemia and HIV/AIDS. The Ministry of Health requires all expectant mothers to be vaccinated with tetanus toxoid before they deliver. However, eighty per cent (80 per cent) of the women received tetanus toxoid vaccination during pregnancy in 2004. In the same year 85.9 per cent children aged 12-23 months were vaccinated with tetanus toxoid. Women and children were supplemented with Vitamin A to mitigate the severity of maternal and childhood illnesses and thereby reducing mortality. In the same year almost 45.5 per cent of children under five received Vitamin ‘A’ supplements.

123. Campaigns and programmes were introduced to support women’s health, which include Maternal and Child Health campaigns conducted for both women and men. In addition, preventive health is encouraged. For instance treated mosquito nets with intermittent preventive treatment for malaria are provided to pregnant women in clinics at an affordable price to reduce malaria incidences.

124. There has been an increase in the percentage of women who received antenatal care from a health professional, namely a doctor, a clinical officer, an assistant clinical officer, a nurses or a midwife, from 40 per cent in 1999 to 93.6 per cent in 2004 in rural areas and 76 per cent in 1999 to 96.8 per cent in 2004 in urban areas. Pregnant women are advised to attend antenatal clinics before the 20^th week of gestation so that their normal baseline health can be assessed and monitored regularly. Chart 16 shows the increased percentage of women who received antenatal care from a health professional in the years 1999 and 2004.

Chart 16: Percentage of women who received antenatal care from a health professional

Source: Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 1999/ 2004/2005.

3.4.2 Family planning

125. There was an increased use of some method of contraception in Tanzania. The numbers of women who use modern methods have grown from 18.2 per cent of all women in 1999 to 21 per cent in rural areas and from 33 per cent in 1999 to 41.8 per cent in 2004/2005. Chart 17 increased contraceptive use.

Chart 17: Contraceptive use by women in 1999 and 2004.

Source: Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 1999/ 2004/2005

126. The Government of Tanzania has taken different measures to control HIV/AIDS in the reporting period. The third Medium Term Plan III, (1998 – 2002) which was multi-sectoral in nature was formulated for the prevention and control of HIV/AIDS in the country.

127. Furthermore, the Tanzania Commission for AIDS was established in 2000 under the Prime Minister’s Office. While the Zanzibar Commission for AIDS was established in 2002. These Commissions provide strategic leadership and multi-sectoral coordination, advocacy, resource mobilization, monitoring and evaluation of the national response against HIV/AIDS.

128. The Government operationalised the National Multi-Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS (2003-2007), making it obligatory for the Government, development partners, NGOs, public and private institutions and enterprises to develop programmes and strategies for combating HIV/AIDS in the areas of jurisdiction.

129. A Programme for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV was started in four referral hospitals and one Regional hospital in 2003/04. The Government aims at introducing PMTCT in 28 health facilities in 7 regions by 2008. ARV services have been provided in 82 selected hospitals. The Government in collaboration with development partners introduced the use of ARV’s to people living with AIDS especially mothers with children. This programme also conducts training of health care staff to manage and monitor PMTCT programmes.

130. Special sensitization programmes for women and girls are conducted to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV. Health workers also sensitize them on how to take care of HIV/AIDS patients. Home-based care was encouraged to ensure that HIV/AIDS patients were not discriminated against. However, the practice increased workload and risk to women and girls, including orphans, who cared for HIV/AIDS affected persons.

131. The Strategic Framework for a Community Based Protection of Women and Children against HIV/AIDS (2001-2005) was developed by the Government in collaboration with NGOs. The framework emphasizes people’s involvement in combating HIV/AIDS and it is implemented in all 58 Folk Development Colleges’ catchments areas.

132. The International Day of HIV and AIDS is commemorated on First December annually and is marked by seminars, workshops and other activities to sensitize communities on the prevention and eradication of HIV/AIDS. In addition HIV/AIDS is a permanent agenda in all fora, at all levels, by Government, NGOs, faith based organizations, the private sector and trade unions.

133. Political, religious and civic leaders at all levels direct their efforts to the struggle against the epidemic mainly through awareness creation campaigns. The media (notably newspapers, radio and television) have been used intensively; school curricula have been modified to include training of students to prevent infection and transmission of HIV/AIDS; and theatrical presentations encompassed kits on HIV/AIDS. The Government, assisted by local and international partners, encouraged and supported condom use financially. Special efforts have been also made to discourage traditional and cultural practices that compounded the problems of HIV/AIDS. Despite these efforts progress in combating the pandemic has been slow with more women being infected compared to men. In the year 2002 the percentage of women and men infected were 12.3 per cent and 9.1 per cent respectively.

3.5 Challenges

The challenges that are facing the country in implementing the Convention include:-

• Increase in child-headed households as well as the number of orphans and vulnerable children.

• People’s attitudes towards mainstreaming of gender concerns in employment practices.

• Lack of financial resources that are required to create an enabling environment for women to compete with men in the elections. The patriarchal system, which favours men and the male dominated leadership of political parties, is still gender blind in that most of their constitutions do not provide for women’s quotas.

• Continued exploitation and violence against women that calls for effective and sustainable law enforcement to ensure the protection of women’s human rights. Despite the existence of the policies, legal framework and sensitization programmes undertaken in combating violence against women and children, the major challenge ahead, is changing of the mindset of people to allow for respect of human rights at all levels.

• The coverage of legal awareness and services that has not reached the majority of the people, especially those in the rural areas. More investment is required in awareness creation, training and provision of paralegal services, particularly in the rural areas.

• Inadequate accessibility of information and technology by majority of women especially those in the rural areas.

• low literacy and education level among women and the competitiveness in the labour market that limit the participation of women in employment.

• The recognition of the value of the triple roles of women.

REFERENCES

Economic Commission for Africa 2004 “African Gender Development Index- An Assessment of Post Beijing Implementation in the Country.

ILO (2001) “National Report for Promoting the linkage between women’s employment and the reduction of child labour’’ ILO’s Gender Promotion Programme, Dar es Salaam.

Research and Analysis Working Group (2000) “Poverty and Human Development Report (2000)’’ Mkuki na Nyota, Dar-es –salaam.

National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (2002) “Household Budget Survey’’

Dar es Salaam.

TAMWA and Gender links 2002 “Report on the Tanzania Media Training Workshop on Covering Gender Violence” Dar es Salaam.

The URT (2003) “Poverty Reduction Strategy: The Second Progress Report 2001/02”

Government printers, Dar es Salaam.

The URT Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (2003)

The URT “Women in Decision-making Positions in the Public Service”

President’s office – Gender Unit Public Service Management, Dar es Salaam.

The URT Ministry of Education and Culture Dar-es-Salaam 2002 “Basic

Statistics in Education: 2001 Region Data’’ KIUTA, Dar es Salaam.

The URT 1998 “The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of (1977)”
Printed by M.P.P, Dar es Salaam.

The URT Ministry of Communication and Transport (2003) “National

Information and Communication, Technology Policy” Colour Print, Dar es Salaam.

The URT 2002 “Health Statistics Abstracts: (2002)” Health Information and Research Section,

Policy and Planning Department, Dar es Salaam.

The URT (2001) “A National Plan of Action for Combating Violence Against

Women and Children”.

The URT (2003) “Monitoring Indicators for the Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)”.

The URT (2002) “Guidelines for the Preparation of Medium Term Plan and

Budget Framework for 2003/04-2005/06”.

The URT (2003) “National Multi Sectoral Strategic Framework on HIV and AIDS

(2003-2007)”.

The URT (1999) “National Higher Education Policy: Ministry of Science,

Technology and Higher Education”.

The URT (1994) “Taarifa ya Uchaguzi wa Madiwani, 1994, Tume ya Taifa ya

Uchaguzi”.

The URT (2000) “Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)”.

The URT (1998) “The Sexual Offences (Special Provisions) Act, 1998”.

The URT (1996) “Child Development Policy: Ministry of Community Development Women Affairs and Children”.

The URT (1996) “National Youth Development Policy”.

The URT (2001) “Joint Annual Review of the District Based Support to Primary

Education (DBSPE)”. Final Report.

The URT (2003) “Ministry of Industry and Trade “National Trade Policy

Background papers: Trade Policy for a competitive economy and exported growth”. University Press, Dar es Salaam.

The URT (2001) National Electoral Commission “The Report of the National

Electoral Commission on the 2000 Presidential, Parliamentary and Councillors’ elections”. University Press, Dar es Salaam.

The URT (2003) “Basic Statistics in Education: National Data” Ministry of

Education and Culture.

The URT (2000) “Women and Gender Development Policy”: Ministry of

Community Development, Gender and Children.

The URT (2001) “Progress Report on the Implementation of the 1997 SADC

Declaration on Gender and Development by SADC” Heads of State and Government.

The URT (2000) “Country Action Plan for Girls” Ministry of Education in

Tanzania”: Ministry of Education and Culture.

Maria M. Kashonda et-al (2000) “Labour Laws for Women at Work: Review of

Tanzania’s labour and labour-related legislation from a gender perspective”.

Dar es Salaam.

Mabala. R and S. R. Kamazima (1995) “The Girl Child in Tanzania: Today’s Girl

Tomorrow’s Women” A research report, UNICEF, Dar es Salaam.

National Bureau of Statistics (Tanzania) and Macro International Inc. (2000).

“Tanzania Reproductive and Child Heath Survey 1999” Calverton,

Maryland: National Bureau of Statistics and Macro International National

Bureau of Statistics Inc.

The URT (1999) “The Refugee Act, 1998”

The URT (2003) “Action Plan to Engender the PRS Review and the PRSP II

Process” Vice President’s Office and Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children Consultative Meeting on the Review of the PRS, from a Gender Perspective, Draft Report.

The URT (2004) “basic Statistics in Education.” 1995-2004.

Tanzania Strategic Country Gender Assessment, C.M. Blackden, M. Rwebangira and Z.L. Ramin, 2004

The URT (2004) “National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty” (NSGRP).